Literature is works of art, created by writers and poets: stories, novels, poems, etc., as well as books on various branches of knowledge.
What is Literature?
Long before the advent of writing, people told each other legends, traditions, and composed poems. This type of so-called oral literature, or folk art, called folklore.
Great Storytellers
The ancient Greeks composed tales about gods and heroes, about battles and journeys. Homer's poem The Iliad tells the story of the heroes who fought under the walls of besieged Troy.
The Old Russian “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” tells about the battles of Russian princes with the Polovtsians and calls on them to unite in a common struggle.
From legends to print
Some oral traditions and legends were later written down, such as Homer's poem, the Anglo-Saxon epic poem, Russian epics. In the Middle Ages, books were copied by hand. It was during this time that Chaucer (1342-1400) wrote down a collection of stories he called The Canterbury Tales. Invention printing press in the middle of the 15th century. made it possible to reproduce books, which led to further development literature.
Novel
A novel is a long narrative about fictional characters, usually in prose, with a developed plot. In the 20th century the novels gained wide popularity. Some of them were published in magazines in small parts. The leading novelists of that era were Dickens in England, Victor Hugo in France, Leo Tolstoy in Russia.
Poetry
The purpose of poetry is to awaken feelings in the reader, create a particular mood, and add emotional coloring to the story. This is achieved by a certain rhythmic organization of a poetic line, when using meter and rhyme it creates musical sound. Poems can be very short, like the rubai of O. Khayyam, or they can be a long epic work- a poem, for example “The Knight in the Skin of a Tiger” by Shota Rustaveli.
Drama
Literary production is not intended for theater and acting drama. Dramatic art originated in Ancient Greece, but how contemporary art The theater appeared in the 15th century. Plays are written to be performed on stage, and for filming films, film scripts are written, in which each scene of the future film is described consistently and in detail.
Writing
Writers come up with a plot from acting characters, and also take note of everything interesting that is happening nearby. Many writers specialize in one type of literature, such as detective stories, romance or history, or books on art and philosophy. Some writers write stories from own life- autobiographies, others - life stories famous personalities, that is, their biographies. You can’t do without books anywhere, in any field of knowledge. Articles in newspapers and magazines, film and television scripts and much more - all this is the work of a writer.
Children's writers
Until the 15th century There were few books for children. Nowadays, the most famous authors have written and are writing for children. Some of the children's books, for example "Winnie the Pooh and All-All-All" English writer Alena A. Milne, have become classics, and their heroes have gained worldwide fame.
Book publication
There are two main types of literature: fiction (fictional stories) and books that present factual material, from collections of culinary recipes to encyclopedias. Writing a book begins from the moment the writer has an idea or receives an order for a book from a publishing house. The publishing house pays the writer for the future book, then the written text is edited, typed, illustrations are prepared and everything is sent to print. Finished copies of the book go on sale, and the publishing house makes a profit.
At the end of the 10th century, the literature of Ancient Rus' arose, literature on the basis of which the literature of three fraternal peoples developed - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Old Russian literature arose along with the adoption of Christianity and was initially called upon to serve the needs of the church: to provide church ritual, disseminate information on the history of Christianity, and educate societies in the spirit of Christianity. These tasks determined both the genre system of literature and the features of its development.
The adoption of Christianity had significant consequences for the development of books and literature in Ancient Rus'.
Old Russian literature was formed on the basis of the unified literature of the southern and Eastern Slavs, which arose under the influence of Byzantine and ancient Bulgarian culture.
Bulgarian and Byzantine priests who came to Rus' and their Russian students needed to translate and rewrite books that were necessary for worship. And some books brought from Bulgaria were not translated, they were read in Rus' without translation, since there was a closeness between the Old Russian and Old Bulgarian languages. Liturgical books, lives of saints, monuments of eloquence, chronicles, collections of sayings, historical and historical stories were brought to Rus'. Christianization in Rus' required a restructuring of the worldview, books about history human race, about the ancestors of the Slavs were rejected, and Russian scribes needed works that would set out Christian ideas about world history and natural phenomena.
Although the need for books in the Christian state was very great, the possibilities for satisfying this need were very limited: in Rus' there were few skilled scribes, and the writing process itself was very lengthy, and the material on which the first books were written - parchment - was very expensive . Therefore, books were written only for rich people - princes, boyars and the church.
But before the adoption of Christianity, Slavic writing was known in Rus'. It found application in diplomatic (letters, agreements) and legal documents, there was also a census between literate people.
Before the emergence of literature, there were speech genres of folklore: epic tales, mythological legends, fairy tales, ritual poetry, cry, lyrics. Folklore played a major role in the development of national Russian literature. Legends are known about fairy-tale heroes, about heroes, about the foundations of ancient capitals about Kiy, Shchek, Horeb. There was also oratory: princes spoke to soldiers and made speeches at feasts.
But literature did not begin with the recordings of folklore, although it continued to exist and develop with literature for a long time. For the emergence of literature, special reasons were needed.
The stimulus for the emergence ancient Russian literature came the adoption of Christianity, when the need arose to acquaint Rus' with the Holy Scriptures, with the history of the church, with world history, with the lives of the saints. Without liturgical books, the churches being built could not exist. And also there was a need to translate from the Greek and Bulgarian originals and distribute large number texts. This is what was the impetus for the creation of literature. Literature had to remain purely church, cultic, especially since secular genres existed in oral form. But in reality everything was different. Firstly, the biblical stories about the creation of the world contained a lot of scientific information about the earth, the animal world, the structure of the human body, the history of the state, that is, they had nothing to do with Christian ideology. Secondly, the chronicle, everyday stories, such masterpieces as “Tales of Igor’s Campaign”, “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik were left out of cult literature.
That is, the functions of literature at the time of its origin and throughout history differ.
The adoption of Christianity contributed to the rapid development of literature only for two centuries; in the future, the church did its best to hinder the development of literature.
And yet the literature of Rus' was devoted to ideological issues. Genre system reflected a worldview typical of Christian states. “Old Russian literature can be considered as literature of one theme and one plot. This story is world history, and this topic is the meaning human life“- this is how D. Likhachev formulated the features of literature in his work ancient period Russian history.
There is no doubt that the Baptism of Rus' was an event of enormous historical importance, not only politically and socially, but also culturally. The history of ancient Russian culture began after Russia adopted Christianity, and the date of the Baptism of Rus' in 988 becomes the starting point for the national-historical development of Russia.
Since the Baptism of Rus', Russian culture has continually faced the complex, dramatic, tragic choice your way. From the point of view of cultural studies, it is important not only to date, but also to document this or that historical event.
1.2 Periods of the history of ancient literature.
The history of ancient Russian literature cannot but be considered in isolation from the history of the Russian people and the Russian state itself. Seven centuries (XI-XVIII centuries), during which ancient Russian literature developed, are full of significant events in historical life Russian people. The literature of Ancient Rus' is evidence of life. History itself has established several periods of literary history.
The first period is the literature of the ancient Russian state, the period of the unity of literature. It lasts a century (XI and beginning of XII centuries). This is the century of formation of the historical style of literature. Literature of this period developed in two centers: in the south of Kyiv and in the north of Novgorod. Characteristic feature literature of the first period is the leading role of Kyiv, as cultural center the entire Russian land. Kyiv is the most important economic link on the world trade route. The Tale of Bygone Years belongs to this period.
Second period mid-XII V. - first third of the 13th century. This is the period of the emergence of new literary centers: Vladimir Zalessky and Suzdal, Rostov and Smolensk, Galich and Vladimir Volynsky. During this period, local themes emerged in literature and different genres appeared. This is the beginning of the period feudal fragmentation.
Next comes a short period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. During this period, the stories “Words about the destruction of the Russian land” and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” were created. During this period, one topic was discussed in the literature, the topic of the invasion of Mongol-Tatar troops in Rus'. This period is considered the shortest, but also the brightest.
The next period, the end of the 14th century. and the first half of the 15th century, this is a period of patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of chronicle writing and historical storytelling. This century coincides with the economic and cultural revival of the Russian land before and after the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. In the middle of the 15th century. New phenomena appear in literature: translated literature, “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of Basarga” appear. All these periods, from the 13th century. to the 15th century can be combined into one period and defined as the period of feudal fragmentation and the unification of North-Eastern Rus'. Since the literature of the second period begins with the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204), and when the main role of Kyiv has already ended and three fraternal peoples are formed from a single ancient Russian nation: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
The third period is the period of Russian literature centralized state XIV - XVII centuries When the state plays an active role in the international relations of its time, and also reflects the further growth of the Russian centralized state. And since the 17th century. a new period of Russian history begins. .
More than a thousand years have passed since Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich baptized Rus' in 988. This event had a direct impact on the formation and development of ancient Russian literature. Christianity, unlike pagan beliefs, is closely connected with writing. Therefore, already from the end of the 10th century. in Rus', which joined Christian culture, experienced an urgent need for books. Having adopted Christianity from the hands of Byzantium, Rus' inherited enormous book wealth. Their assimilation was facilitated by Bulgaria, which was baptized back in 865. It played the role of a kind of mediator between Byzantium and the young Christian state, and made it possible to take advantage in Rus' of translations into the Slavic language made by the students of Cyril and Methodius, who created the Slavic alphabet in 863.
Writing came to Rus' long before the adoption of Christianity. Archaeologists discovered evidence of the use of the Slavic alphabet in the cultural layers of the early 10th century. However, it was after 988 that the number of books began to multiply. An outstanding role here belonged to Vladimir's son, Yaroslav the Wise. The chronicle reports about this prince in 1037: “He gathered together many scribes who translated from Greek language into Slavic, and wrote many books.” It is known that even before the official adoption of the new religion, Christians lived in Kyiv. Among the rulers, Princess Olga became the first Christian. She, like other early Christians, used books.
Translations of Christian books played special role in the history of Russian literature. They were especially important in the first centuries after the adoption of Christianity. The range of these books was very wide and varied. Translations in those days often had the character of a kind of co-creation, rather than a literal translation of the original. The book seemed to begin new life in other cultural circumstances. Of course, this does not apply to the Holy Scriptures, the works of the Church Fathers, etc. In general, canonical texts did not allow the freedom that medieval scribes enjoyed when translating works of secular content.
This manual examines only original works of ancient Russian literature. But they could often be influenced by translated sources. For example, the Pechersk chroniclers already used Byzantine chronicles when creating the “Tale of Bygone Years”. IN lately Research into the translated literature of Ancient Rus' has revived, interesting attempts are being made to write its history, aimed at identifying the patterns of existence of translated works and their role in the creation of original monuments.
What did Rus' perceive in the first centuries of Christianity? Of course, first of all we should mention the Gospel texts and the works of the Church Fathers. Rus' did not turn to modern Byzantine literature, and to the works of authors who lived in the IV-VI centuries. n. e. Early Byzantine literature was more consistent with the needs of the young Christian state. Of the later Christian authors, the works of John of Damascus and Fyodor the Studite were especially famous in Rus'. The earliest surviving Four Gospels dates back to 1144 (Galician Gospel). All earlier Gospels are aprakosnymi, that is, they contain readings in the order they appear in the calendar of church holidays.
Old Testament books existed in fragments as part of proverbs. And the most popular of the books of the Old Testament was the Psalter. The full text of the Bible was finally formed in Rus' only at the very end of the 15th century. in Novgorod under Archbishop Gennady. From Byzantium and the Slavic world, collections of church chants, teachings, as well as a rich corpus of Byzantine hagiography came to Rus'.
IN Kievan Rus there is great interest in the works of secular, heroic character. Already in the early period of the development of ancient Russian literature, the Byzantine chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, “The Deed of Deugene” - a translation of the Byzantine epic tale about the hero Digenis Akritos, as well as “Alexandria” - a novel about the life of Alexander the Great, were widely known. Particularly popular in Rus', as in medieval Europe, used the “History of the Jewish War” by Josephus, written in 75-79. n. e. and telling about the Roman conquest of Judea. This historical narrative had a strong influence on the style of ancient Russian military stories.
In the first centuries of Christianity, collections also came to Rus', which can be called original medieval encyclopedias, reference books, from which the ancient Russian reader could glean information about the world around him, about animals and plants (“Physiologist”), get acquainted with the aphorisms and sayings of ancient sages (“Bee” ).
Old Russian literature did not know works that declared principles literary creativity. And yet, as part of the “Izbornik” of 1073, copied for the Kyiv prince from the collection of the Bulgarian king Simeon (10th century), there is an article “On images”. This is the most ancient poetics in Rus', containing information about twenty-seven poetic figures and tropes. True, at present it is difficult to judge how popular this set of poetic terms was among the scribes of Ancient Rus'.
With perception ancient Russian culture new creeds are associated Apocrypha (from Greek - “secret”, “intimate”"), which can be called the religious epic of the Middle Ages. Their content diverged from the canonical texts of Holy Scripture. The Apocrypha was not officially recognized by the church and was included in indexes "renounced books" but, despite this, they were very popular and often served as sources for iconographic subjects. The prevalence of apocryphal literature can be partly explained by the fact that, by transforming the plots of Sacred history in its own way, it made them accessible to the public consciousness.
This is the range of translated works that served as the basis for the creation of original Old Russian literature and its subsequent development.
"The Tale of Bygone Years"
Chronicle writing is a unique phenomenon national culture and writing. Throughout the Middle Ages, chronicles were kept in various principalities and cities. They were united into monumental vaults, where the story of the events of the past covered several centuries. The oldest of the all-Russian chronicles that have reached us is the Tale of Bygone Years. This grandiose historical and journalistic work of the early Middle Ages was at the origins of Russian historical narrative. Subsequent generations of chroniclers placed The Tale of Bygone Years at the beginning of their collections. It's not only important historical source, but also the most valuable literary monument, because many original works of various genres have been preserved here.
“The Tale of Bygone Years” took shape gradually; several generations of Kyiv scribes took part in its creation. The history of the chronicle is reconstructed hypothetically. The greatest influence on the study of The Tale of Bygone Years was the fundamental concept of A. A. Shakhmatov, proposed at the beginning of the 20th century. Its provisions are shared by the majority of modern medievalists, who have complemented certain aspects of the theory of A. A. Shakhmatov. According to the scientist, “The Tale of Bygone Years” was preceded by a number of chronicle vaults XI century; the most important of them were created in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery (1073 and 1095). The earliest chronicle texts appeared in the 1030s. in Kyiv and Novgorod independently of each other. Actually, “The Tale of Bygone Years” in its first edition (not preserved) was compiled by a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor in 1113 based on arches of the 11th century, supplemented by new sources. In 1116, by order of Vladimir Monomakh, the chronicle was transferred to the patrimonial Vydubitsky monastery, where the abbot Sylvester to please Monomakh, he created the second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years. Then in 1118 a third edition appeared, compiled unknown chronicler. The second and third editions were preserved as part of the Laurentian (1377) and Ipatiev (early 15th century) chronicles.
The Tale of Bygone Years owes its appearance to the development of historical consciousness in Kievan Rus. Chroniclers sought to understand the place and role of the young Christian state among other European lands and peoples. The very name of the monument already states the goals of its creators: “These are the stories of past years, where the Russian land came from, who became the first to reign in Kyiv and how the Russian land arose”. The final formation of the “Tale of Bygone Years” occurs at a time when similar works appear among Rus'’s closest neighbors - the Poles and Czechs.
The story about the events of Russian history is told by year (the first date is 852). The weather principle of presentation arose in the 11th century. and then became the basis of the chronicle narrative for many centuries. Its appearance is usually associated with Easter tables. Byzantine chronography had its own principles of organizing material - according to emperors. There is not and cannot be a single plot and hero in the chronicle. Chronology is the main connecting principle. The discrete nature of the chronicle text and the combination of various sources in it determine the thematic and genre diversity of The Tale of Bygone Years. The choice of faith by Prince Vladimir and the baptism of Rus', military campaigns and battles, the fight against the Polovtsians, princely feuds, diplomatic efforts, astral phenomena, construction activities, the life of the ascetics of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery - these are the main themes of The Tale of Bygone Years.
The ancient chroniclers did not just convey events - they were concerned about the fate of the Motherland, defended the ideas of the unity of Rus', called for peace between the princes, and moralized. Their reasoning about good and evil, Christian values often gave the chronicle a journalistic sound. The chronicle reflected popular (and not narrowly feudal, as it would be later) views on the history of Rus', because the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery from the first years of its existence occupied an independent position in relation to the Grand Duke.
As already noted, the chronicle is not an author's text. Chroniclers were not only the creators of new historical narratives- they were primarily copyists, systematizers, and editors. In the “Tale of Bygone Years” you can find texts that are different in genre and stylistically (from a short weather record to a lengthy narrative), created specifically for the chronicle or included in it (for example, the “philosopher’s speech” addressed to Prince Vladimir, outlining the fundamentals Christian faith). The work of the chroniclers was perceived by contemporaries as a document and had national significance, so it is not surprising that legal texts were preserved in it (for example, treaties between Russian princes and the Greeks).
In the chronicle, elements of the hagiographic style (for example, in the story about the murder of Boris and Gleb by their brother Svyatopolk) coexist with military narratives, which have their own style.
Chronicle stories about military events are characterized by features that will become traditional for the poetics of Russian military narrative - stable formulas that served to depict campaigns, sieges, and the ferocity of battle (for example, “the slaughter of evil”, “I shoot like rain”, etc.).
Ancient Chronicler begins his narrative with information about the settlement of peoples after the flood, talks about Slavic tribes. In this part of the chronicle the influence of Byzantine chronography is noticeable. Pagan times are described based on the epic tradition. D. S. Likhachev noted the interaction in The Tale of Bygone Years between the epic style and the “style of monumental historicism.” Folklore influences are most clearly felt in stories about pagan princes (Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav). The first Christian, Princess Olga, is portrayed as a wise fairy-tale heroine. She asks her husband's killers unique riddles that cost the Drevlyans their lives. Entered the "Tale of Bygone Years" and a whole series legends and traditions (for example, about the visit to Rus' by the Apostle Andrew, a toponymic legend about the origin of the name of the city of Kyiv, a legend about Belgorod jelly or about the young man-kozhemyak). In the description of modern scribes historical events the central place is occupied by the figure of the prince, who is denounced for unrighteous acts (for example, Svyatopolk the Accursed) or is depicted from the standpoint of idealization. Gradually, a small genre form of princely posthumous praise is developed in the chronicle. For all their traditionalism and laconicism, these obituaries sometimes reflected the traits of a specific person. Here, for example, is what the chronicler says about Mstislav Vladimirovich the Brave, who, as stated in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” “Killed Rededya in front of the Kasog regiments”: “Mstislav was powerful in body, handsome in face, with big eyes, brave in battle, merciful, loved his squad beyond measure, did not spare property for her, did not forbid her anything in drink or food " This squad military praise contrasts, for example, with the praise of another prince of the 11th century. - Vsevolod Yaroslavich, sounding completely different: “This noble prince Vsevolod from a young age loved the truth, gave to the poor, gave honor to bishops and presbyters, especially loved the monks and gave them everything they asked for. He himself abstained from drunkenness and lust.”
Inter-princely relations already in the 11th century. abounded in dramatic situations. The denunciation of strife and crimes sounds with particular force in the chronicle story about the murder of Boris and Gleb by their elder brother Svyatopolk the Accursed. And under 1097 there is a story about the blinding of Prince Vasilko Terebovlsky. The insidious crime was committed soon after the congress in Lyubech, where the princes vowed to live in peace. It led to a new feud. The author described the bloody drama in great detail, wanting to provoke a protest against the civil strife that was weakening Rus'.
Russian chronicles were created in the Old Russian language. This contains significant difference our historical narratives from Western European chronicles (including Slavic ones), written in Latin, and not in national languages.
When did ancient Russian literature appear? What prerequisites were necessary for this? Let's try to find out the features of the historical period of that time that influenced literature.
Early feudal period
Discussing when and why ancient Russian literature arose, let us dwell on its close connection with the formation of the state. The Old Russian state appeared over a long period of time historical process division of the communal tribal system of the East Slavic tribal peoples.
Prerequisites for the appearance
Let's find out why ancient Russian literature arose. The East Slavic tribes switched to the feudal system, bypassing the slaveholding formation. In such a system public relations the minority dominated the majority. To search for an ideological explanation for this fact, the pagan tribal religion and oral folk art used during the time of the tribal system were not enough.
The development of political, trade, and economic relations required new writing, which was to become a prerequisite for the emergence of literature.
When did ancient Russian literature appear? The computer age, as we call our time, is characterized by a lack of interest in reading fiction. Few people know that writing in Rus' arose even before the official adoption of Christianity.
The Pannonian Life of Cyril provides evidence that some form of writing existed in the second half of the ninth century.
Cyril and Methodius
So in what century did ancient Russian literature emerge? Scientists have not found an exact answer to this question, but they are convinced that the greatest historical and cultural event for the Slavs was the discovery of the alphabet by Methodius and Cyril (863). The end of the ninth century saw a period of cultural flourishing in ancient Bulgaria. At this time, wonderful writers appeared: Clement, John Exarch of Bulgaria, Constantine. The works that they created were of particular importance for the formation of ancient Russian culture.
Acceptance of Christianity
Arguing about when ancient Russian literature arose, let us turn to 988. This date is considered the time of the official adoption of Christianity in Rus'. For the formation of ancient Russian original culture, it was important that Rus' recognized Byzantium, which at that time was a representative of high culture.
Byzantine Orthodox Church had already separated from the Roman Catholic faith. If Catholics put forward Latin as the basis of the literary language, then the Orthodox Greeks welcomed the development of national literary styles.
In Ancient Rus', the ecclesiastical literary language was considered to be Old Slavic, which was close in grammatical basis to the Old Russian language. Original literature that appeared at that time historical period, became the impetus for its development. The enrichment of the Russian language took place with the help of oral folk speech.
Thinking about when ancient Russian literature arose, historians and writers agree that a certain system of “book teaching” in Rus' appeared at the end of the tenth century.
It was Christianity that played an important role in the formation of the culture of Ancient Rus'. By the middle of the 11th century, skilled translators appeared who were engaged in “translating” Greek books into “Slovenian” language.
At the time when ancient Russian literature arose, monasteries played a special role. For example, in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery a true center of Christian culture was formed.
Sources
The following people take an active part in the development of literature:
- folk poetic oral creativity;
- Christian book literature.
When studying folklore, it was possible to establish that the ancient Slavs who lived in the 10th century owned developed forms of folk oral creativity.
Researchers are convinced that it was during this period of time that the transition to historical subjects from mythological tales took place. Tradition, legend, toponymic legend, songs about military battles became leading in oral poetry that era.
Researchers believe that it was during this period that folk epic, which played a role in the original ancient Russian literature. Princely squads that carried out military campaigns always had singers who glorified the valor of the prince and his warriors during feasts and rest. This peculiar oral chronicle was partially written down, which became the main source for literary subjects.
It was through folklore that elements of folk ideology and artistic poetic images entered literature.
In the process of assimilating Christian ideology, the Russian people adapted to their pagan ideas and concepts.
Conclusion
Throughout the entire period of formation of ancient Russian literature, it was folk poetry that was the main source contributing to its enrichment. Let us also note the importance of business writing and oral speech in the formation of literature.
For example, before a battle, military leaders always addressed their soldiers with a speech, setting them up and inspiring them to perform feats of arms. Oral speech was systematically used during diplomatic negotiations. Ambassadors sent to another country memorized the phrases spoken to them by the ruler.
Such speeches implied certain phrases and were expressive and concise. Thanks to the accuracy and conciseness of expressions in oral speech and business writing, an aphoristic, concise style of presentation appeared in ancient Russian books.
The process of formation and development of ancient Russian literature was influenced by many facts. First of all, it is important to note the features social order of that time, people's desire to get an explanation for the changes they observed in their lives.
As philosophical foundations of ancient Russian literature, historians consider the canonical Christian books of the New Testament, the Gospel. Religious books set out and explained in detail the torment of earthly life, the miracles of resurrection, and ascension to heaven.