In the 17th century The all-Russian market began to take shape. Before this, feudal fragmentation still remained economically: the country was divided into a number of regions (local markets), closed in on themselves, between which there were no stable trade links.
The merger of individual regions into the all-Russian market meant the establishment of a stable exchange of goods between individual regions. But if the regions exchanged goods, it means that they specialized in the production of certain goods for export to other regions: they do not exchange bread for bread.
The regional specialization of fisheries has already been mentioned. But such specialization also began in agriculture. The main areas of commercial production of bread are the Middle Volga and Upper Dnieper regions, and the main areas of commercial production of flax and hemp are the regions of Novgorod and Pskov.
But connections between individual areas were still weak, and this led to huge differences in the prices of goods in different cities. Merchants profited from precisely this difference in prices, bought goods in one city, transported them to another and sold them at a much higher price, receiving from trade transactions up to 100% profit or more on invested capital. Such high profits are typical for the period of initial capital accumulation.
The consequence of weak trade ties was that main role fairs were held in trade. The merchant could not travel around the country, purchasing the goods he needed for retail trade at the places of their production - this would take several years. Merchants from different cities came to the fair, which took place at a certain time, and each brought goods that were cheap at home. As a result, the fair gathered full range goods from different places, and each merchant, having sold his goods, could purchase the goods he needed.
The largest fair in the 17th century. there was Makaryevskaya - at the Makaryevsky Monastery near Nizhny Novgorod. Not only Russian merchants came here, but also Western European and Eastern ones. The Irbit Fair in the Urals played an important role, which connected the European part of the country with Siberia and eastern markets.
Foreign trade of Russia in the XV-XVI centuries. was weak. After all, medieval trade was predominantly maritime, and Russia had no access to Baltic Sea and that's why it was! virtually isolated from the West. This economic isolation slowed down the country's economic development. Therefore, Chancellor's expedition played an important role for Russia. Setting off from England in search of the northern passage to India, Chancellor lost two of the three ships of his expedition and instead of India in 1553 he ended up in Moscow. English and then Dutch merchants followed Chancellor to Russia this way, and trade with the West somewhat revived. In the 80s XVI century on! shore White Sea the city of Arkhangelsk was founded, through which the main trade with the West now took place.
The economic backwardness of Russia and the contradiction between the centralized structure of the state and the feudal economy were manifested in public finances. A lot of money was required to maintain the state apparatus.
They were also required to maintain the army: at that time in Russia, in addition to the noble militia, there were already regular regiments of the “foreign system” and the Streltsy army, service in which was paid with money, not estates. When a market economy dominates in a country, these expenses! successfully covered by taxes. But the Russian state arose on a feudal basis, and the natural feudal economy did not provide sufficient monetary resources for taxation. Therefore, the Order of the Great Treasury (Ministry of Finance) was forced to resort to special methods of covering government expenses.
One of the sources of replenishment of the treasury were monopolies and farming. Trade in many goods - hemp, potash, vodka, etc. - was a state monopoly. Merchants could trade these goods only by purchasing the right to trade from the treasury, taking a “farm-off”, that is, paying a certain amount of money to the treasury. For example, the tsarist monopoly was the drinking business and the sale of vodka. Naturally, it was sold at 5-10 times more than its procurement price. This difference was what the farmer had to pay to obtain the right to trade. But, as it turned out, this enriched not so much the treasury as the tax farmers, and drinking farms became one of the main sources of initial capital accumulation in Russia.
Widely practiced indirect taxes, and not always successfully. 1%, in mid-17th century V. the tax on salt doubled its market price. As a result, thousands of pounds of cheap fish, which the people ate during Lent, rotted. There was a popular uprising, a salt riot, and the new tax had to be cancelled.
Then the government decided to issue copper money with a forced exchange rate. But the people did not recognize them as equal to silver ones: when trading, 10 copper rubles were given for a silver ruble. A new uprising took place - the Copper Riot. It was started by the archers, who were given a salary in copper money. And we had to give up copper money. They were withdrawn from circulation, and the treasury paid 5, and then even 1 kopeck per copper ruble.
Thus, in the Russian economy in the 17th century. capitalist elements arose: the all-Russian market began to form, the first manufactories appeared. The process of primitive accumulation has begun. But capital was accumulated by merchants in the process of unequal trade, especially in farming. The second side of primitive accumulation - the ruin of the peasants and their transformation into hired workers - was not observed: the peasants were attached to the land and to their landowners.
End of work -
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Muscovy in the 15th-17th centuries
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- History of the Russian State. Deulna negotiations and truce.
2. New phenomena in the economy: the beginning of folding all-Russian market, formation of manufactories.
- with a new dynasty after a time of troubles,
- with new borders of the state,
- with the emergence of a new government class (nobility),
- with new features in the national economy (peasants fall into serfdom, and the industrial development of the country begins on a serf basis).
After the Troubles and the Polish-Swedish intervention, the country found itself in a state of complete disorder. Many Russian cities and villages were devastated. The center, south, and west of the Moscow State suffered the most. The Time of Troubles led to deep economic decline. In many counties historical center states the size of arable land has decreased by 20 times, and the number of peasants 4 times . In the western districts (Rzhevsky, Mozhaisk, etc.) cultivated land ranged from 0.05 to 4.8%. The lands in the possessions of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery were “all ruined to the ground and the peasant women with their wives and children were flogged, and the rich ones were completely taken away... and about five or six dozen peasant women were left behind after the Lithuanian ruin, and they still don’t know how to start a loaf of bread for themselves after the ruin.” In a number of areas, and by the 20-40s of the 17th century, the population was still below the level of the 16th century. And in the middle of the 17th century, “living arable land” in the Zamoskovny region accounted for no more than half of all lands recorded in scribe books.
The huge country was sparsely populated, especially Siberia, where on the verge of the 17th - 18th centuries. 61 thousand Russian people lived there. Total population of Russia in 1678 it was 11.2 million people, of which a share There were 180 thousand townspeople. The bulk of the population were peasants, among whom the predominant landowners (52%), then came the peasants belonging to clergy (16%) And royal family (9.2%). There were unenslaved peasants 900 thousand . This entire population was feudally dependent on the landowners, the clergy, the royal family and the state. The privileged classes included nobles (70 thousand) and clergy (140 thousand)
But gradually Russia began to emerge from economic ruin. By the end of the 20s and beginning of the 30s, peasants began to return to their native places. Neglected and fallow lands were reclaimed and cities were revived. The number of craft and trading townspeople increased in them.
Agriculture:
- Ubiquitous Domination three-field
- Development new lands (Siberia, south, Volga region)
- Height commercial production of agricultural products in certain regions (marketable bread from black earth regions)
Craft:
- The development of craft into small-scale production (from order to market)
- Appearance manufactories - form handmade, using division of labor and market-oriented:
- are based not on civilian wages (as in Western Europe), but on serf labor.
- most often created by the state and carried out its orders,
— weak interest of their owners in improving technology due to the low cost of labor and lack of competition.
The first manufactories appeared in iron and steel industry (Vinius manufactory, 1637), then in salt making (Prikamye), leather production.
- The emergence of fishing villages (Ivanovo, Murashkino, Pavlovo, etc.), most of whose residents make a living from the same craft, supplying products to the market.
Trade has acquired a significant scale:
- Appearance All-Russian fairs (Makaryevskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, etc.) – auctions periodically organized in a certain place.
- Formation merchants (Nikitnikovs, Pogankins, Shustovs, Shorins, etc._ - the class engaged in trade
- Creation of the All-Russian market – general economic ties and exchange of goods between various parts countries
- Protection by the government of Russian merchants from competition from foreigners:
— 1653 – Trade charter – a 5% duty on imported goods has been established;
— 1667 – New Trade Charter (developed by A.L. Ordyn-Nashchokin_ - foreigners are allowed only wholesale trade in border areas, within the country - with special permits and double duties;
— a 10% import duty was introduced
The lack of convenient sea routes hindered the development of foreign trade. The only seaport that froze in winter was Arkhangelsk. Russian cities are growing on the basis of trade and commodity production. City suburbs are a source of income for the treasury. The population of the settlement located on state land is included in the tax, i.e. bears responsibility to the state.
- History of the Russian State. Siberian Landseekers of the 17th Century.
Despite all the difficulties, the development of agriculture and industry contributed to the growth of trade.
In the second half of the 17th century. In Russia, separate agricultural and fishing areas are becoming more and more clearly distinguished. Thus, the central and northern regions supplied rye and oats, the southern regions supplied wheat. Some areas specialized in vegetable and horticultural crops. Cattle breeding actively developed in the lush meadows of Pomerania, in the flooded meadows of the Middle Volga and Oka.
Pomors, like fishermen in the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea, supplied a significant part of Russia with fish. Particularly expensive and delicious fish, caviar. And bread and agricultural products were supplied to the northern and arid southern regions of the country.
- Show Russian Pomorie on the map.
Industrial centers also appeared. Thus, the products of Tula metallurgists were distributed throughout the country. Salt was transported from the salt pans of the Urals to all corners of Russia.
Russia was gradually drawn into trade exchanges, and individual regions began to depend on each other to obtain the necessary goods. And in major cities, and in suburban settlements, and in rural areas there were numerous trades that were interconnected. This indicated the beginning of the formation of an all-Russian market. All-Russian market- these are close economic ties between individual regions of Russia.
- Show salt mining areas on the map.
Artist A. M. Vasnetsov
- Indicate what has changed now appearance Red Square, the Kremlin wall compared to the 17th century.
The place where major trade transactions involving large quantities of goods were carried out was fairs.
Moscow was the center of the country's trade relations. Moscow auctions were bursting with local and imported goods: bread from the south, salt from the north, fish from the lower reaches of the Volga, furs from Siberia. Dozens of Moscow streets, alleys, and squares still bear names associated with crafts and trade.
- Assume that they were transported on carts and sleighs.
Along with Moscow, other trading cities also grew. Such centers were Tula, Yaroslavl, Ustyug Veliky, Vologda. All higher value acquired Nizhny Novgorod, where the flow of goods was distributed between the south and north, east and center of the country. Through Astrakhan there was trade with southern countries, via Arkhangelsk - from Western Europe.
But Arkhangelsk port was freezing and located very far from the central regions of the country. As trade relations with the West developed, the problem of Russia’s lack of access to the Baltic and Black Seas became increasingly acute.
In the second half of the 17th century, Russia made a significant step forward in its economic development. It was at this time that new phenomena emerged in the country’s economy, primarily associated with the emergence of manufacturing production and the formation of the all-Russian market.
In the 17th century The role and importance of the merchants in the life of the country increased.
Great value acquired the constantly gathering fairs: Ma-
Karsvskaya near Nizhny Novgorod, Svenskaya in the Bryansk region,
Irbitskaya in Siberia, a fair in Arkhangelsk, etc., where merchants
conducted a large wholesale and retail trade.
Along with the development of domestic trade, foreign trade also grew. To
mid-century, huge benefits were derived from foreign trade
foreign merchants who exported timber, furs, hemp, and potash from Russia
etc. Suffice it to say that the English fleet was built from
Russian forest, and the ropes for his ships were made from Russian
hemp. The center of Russian trade with Western Europe was Ar-
Khangelsk There were English and Dutch trading posts here.
ry. Close ties were established with the countries of the East through Astra-
Han, where the Indian and Persian trading courts were located.
The Russian government supported the growing merchant class.
In 1667, the New Trade Charter was issued, developing the provisions
of the Trade Charter of 1653. The new Trade Charter increased the
duties on foreign goods. Foreign merchants had the right
conduct wholesale trade only in border trading centers.
In the 17th century the exchange of goods between
separate regions of the country, which indicated the beginning of the formation
all-Russian market. The merging of individual lands into a single one began
economic system. Growing economic ties strengthened
political unity of the country.
Social structure of Russian society. The upper class
The main thing in the country was the boyars, whose environment included many
Chapter 102 11
Yumkov of former great and appanage princes. Near the boyar sops
families owned military ranks, served the king and occupied leadership positions
duei and in jusudarsmvs. By the end of the 17th century. boyars in increasingly yipa-
gained its power and became closer to the nobility.
The nobles made up the upper layer of the government's service people
according to i count. They owned estates by inheritance law
in case of continuation of service by children after their birth. Nobles-
CIBO significantly strengthened its position at the end of Smukha and became
support of royal power. 3ioi layer of feudal lords included persons serving
those at the royal court (Smolniks, attorneys, Moscow nobles
and residents), as well as policemen, i. With. provincial nobles and de-
those boyars.
The lowest stratum of service people included service people
by device or set. It included archers, gunners, coachmen
kovs, serving Cossacks, government craftsmen, etc.
The rural Christian population consisted of two main
tsyuri. The peasants who lived on the lands of the i rank and estates were called
were proprietary or privately owned. They bore the burden
(set of duties) in favor of the government and its feudal lord. By-
the landowner received the right to speak in court for his peasants, he had
also the right of patrimonial court over the population of his estate. Gosu-
The Darsmvo reserved the right to trial only for the most serious
crimes. A place close to privately owned peasants
The peasants of the monastery were indifferent.
filthy peasantry. They lived on the outskirts of the country (Pomor-
North, Ural, Siberia, South), united into communities. Chernososh-
peasants had no right to leave their lands unless they found
Should I give myself a change? They contributed to the benefit of the state. Their position
it was easier than privately owned ones. "Black Lands" could be
sell, mortgage, inherit.
The middle position between black-mown and privately owned
the palace peasants who served the
economic privileges of the royal court. They had self-government
tion and obeyed the palace clerks.
The top of the Yurod population were merchants. The most god-
1 thousand of them (in Moscow in the 17th century there were approximately 30 people)
by royal command they were declared “guests”. Many wealthy
merchants united in two Moscow hundreds - “gost innoy”
and "cloth".
The bulk of the Yurod population were called townspeople
people. They united into one Yaglov community. The bourgeoisie in the city
dakh has not yet developed In many yurods of Russia among the residents
military officials and their families predominated, and decisive role V
osprey ZH1MNI shredded by large landowners.
Chapter 11 Socio-economic development in XVII in Russia after the Time of Troubles__________103
City artisans united professionally
sign in settlements and hundreds. They carried the guilt - guilty in Poland -
zu of the state, they elected their elders and sogskys (black settlements).
In addition to them, in the cities there were white settlements that belonged to the boyars,
monasteries, bishops. These settlements were “whitewashed” (liberated)
from bearing city taxes in favor of the state.
Before Peter’s times, both in cities and in rural areas
There lived a significant number of slaves - serfs. Complete slaves were
the hereditary property of their masters. Layer of bonded holo-
pov was formed from among those who fell into a state of slavery (kaba-
la- receipt or promissory note) of previously free people.
Bonded slaves served until the death of the creditor, if voluntarily
did not take on a new bondage in favor of the heir of the deceased.
A special class was the clergy. It included archbishops
reys and monks - black clergy and priests - white clergy
new fiefdoms.
Free and walking people (free Cossacks, children of priests,
servicemen and townspeople, hired workers, wandering musicians
you and the buffoons, the beggars, the tramps) did not end up in the estates
or urban communities and did not bear state taxes. Of them
numbers were dialed by service people using a device. However, the state
tried in every possible way to bring them under his control.
Summing up the consideration of socio-economic development
Russia in the 17th century, it should be said that in Russia feudal-fortress-
the social system dominated in all spheres of economic, social
nal and cultural life countries.
New phenomena in the economy (the beginning of the formation of an all-Russian
go market, growth of small-scale production, creation of manufactories,
the emergence of large capital in the field of trade and usury
etc.) were under strong influence and control from
sides of the serf system. And this was at a time when
at most developed countries West (Holland, England) occurred
whether bourgeois revolutions, in others a capitalist
sky way of economy, based on personal freedom and private
property.
Even V. O. Klyuchevsky believed that the 17th century. opens a “new
period of Russian history,” linking this with the establishment after the Smu-
you are a new dynasty, new borders, the triumph of the nobility and fortress
agriculture, on the basis of which both agriculture and
and industry.
One part of Soviet historians unjustifiably connected the beginning
“new period” with the formation of capitalism in Russia and the emergence
nium of bourgeois relations in the country's economy. Another part of them
believed that the 17th century. was a time of "progressive feudal lords due to
104 Chapter 11 Socio-economic development in XVII Russia after the Time of Troubles
ma" and up to the second half of the XVIII V. there were no supportive people in Russia
bourgeois relations and the capitalist structure in the economy.
IN recent years It has become fashionable to say to IB that Russian civili-
nation seems to be drifting between East and West and modernization
is achieved by borrowing Western European experience. Represents-
I think that it is more correct to look for an answer in ways of explaining what
features were inherent in Russian historical process in frame-
on the global patterns of development of human civilization
Let us pay attention to the role of the natural-geographical factor
in our history. Sharply continental climate, short agricultural
farming season in conditions of extensive farming
predetermined a relatively small social aggregate
supplementary product.
The huge, but sparsely populated and poorly developed territory of Russia
sia with a multinational ethnic composition, adhering to
different religious denominations, in conditions of continuous struggle
with external danger, the last of which was foreign
intervention during the Time of Troubles developed at a slower pace,
than Western countries. The development of the country was also affected by the lack of
progress to ice-free seas, which became one of the tasks
The devastation caused by the Troubles is difficult to express in numbers, but it can be compared with the devastation after Civil War 1918-1920 or with damage from military operations and occupation in 1941-1945. Official censuses - scribe books and “watches” of the 20s. XVII century - they constantly noted “the wasteland that was a village”, “arable land overgrown with forest”, empty courtyards whose owners “wandered unknown”. In many districts of the Moscow State, from 1/2 to 3/4 of arable land was “deserted”; a whole layer of ruined peasants appeared - “bobyli”, who could not run an independent farm. Entire cities were abandoned (Radonezh, Mikulin); in others (Kaluga, Velikiye Luki, Rzhev, Ryazhsk) the number of households was a third or a quarter of what it was at the end of the 16th century; According to the official census, the city of Kashin “was burned out, carved out, and destroyed to the ground by Polish and Lithuanian people” so that only 37 inhabitants remained in it. According to modern demographic estimates, only by the 40s. XVII century The population of the 16th century was restored.
These consequences of the Troubles were gradually overcome, and in the second half of the 17th century. In the economic development of the country, one can note the territorial division of labor. In the second half of the 17th century. regions were identified that specialized in the production of flax (Pskov region, Smolensk region), bread (territories south of the Oka); the population of Rostov and Beloozero grew vegetables for sale; The centers of iron production were Tula, Serpukhov, Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya, and Tikhvin. Residents of many villages were primarily engaged in trade and craft (Ivanovo, Pavlovo, Lyskovo, Murashkino, etc.): they produced and sold iron products, linen, felt boots, and caps. The peasants of the Gzhel volost near Moscow made dishes that later became famous, the Kizhi churchyard was famous for its knives, and Vyazma for its sleighs.
Southern cities that were previously fortresses (Orel, Voronezh) became grain markets, from where grain collected from local black soils went to Moscow and other cities. Yaroslavl was the center of leather production: raw leather was received there, then tanned by local artisans and distributed throughout the country. When in 1662 the state declared a monopoly on trade in this product, the treasury in Yaroslavl bought 40% of the country's leather reserves. The government sought to streamline the collection of customs duties: since 1653, all merchants paid a single “ruble” duty - 10 money (5 kopecks) for each ruble of the value of the goods, with one half at the place of purchase and the other at the place of sale of the goods.
Both peasants and feudal lords came to the market with their products. A reflection of this process was the development of cash rent, which was found at that time, according to historians, in every fifth land holding - patrimony or estate. Documents of the 17th century talk about the emergence of prosperous
ny “merchant peasants” and urban “rich and loud-mouthed men” from yesterday’s townspeople or streltsy. They started their own businesses - forges, soap factories, tanneries, bought homemade linen in the villages, and shops and courtyards in the cities. Having become rich, they subjugated other small producers and forced them to work for themselves: for example, in 1691, Yaroslavl artisans complained about “trading people” who had 5-10 shops and “cut off” small producers from the market. Rich peasants appeared such as Matvey Bechevin, who owned an entire river fleet and delivered thousands of quarters of grain to Moscow; or serf B.I. Morozov Alexey Leontyev, who easily received a loan of a thousand rubles from his boyar; or the patriarchal peasant Lev Kostrikin, who owned taverns in the second largest city in the country - Novgorod. Traders were increasingly exploring distant and nearby markets.
After the Time of Troubles, the government restored the previous monetary system. But still, the weight of the penny gradually decreased by half (from 0.7 to 0.3 g), and it literally fell through my fingers. In 1654, an attempt was made at monetary reform: the silver kopeck was replaced by large silver coins of 1 ruble, 50 kopecks and copper change. But the reform ended in failure. The annexation of Ukraine in 1654 and the subsequent protracted war with Poland led to increased production of copper money, rapid inflation and the “Copper Riot” of 1662, during which Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich had to go out to angry Muscovites and even “beat them on the wrist” with them. As a result, the government was forced to return to the previous monetary system.
The volume of foreign trade increased 4 times over the century: at the end of the 16th century. 20 ships came to Arkhangelsk annually, and in the second half of the 17th century. already 80; 75% of Russia's foreign trade turnover passed through this port. English and Dutch merchants brought colonial goods here from Africa, Asia and America: spices (cloves, cardamom, cinnamon, pepper, saffron), sandalwood, incense. In the Russian market, non-ferrous metals (tin, lead, copper), paints, glass glasses and shot glasses imported in thousands, and large quantities of paper were in demand. Hundreds of barrels of wines (white French, Renskoe, Romanea, red church, etc.) and vodka, despite their high cost in Russia, and lots of imported herring were sold out.
An Armenian courtyard was built in Astrakhan; According to the charter of 1667, merchants of the Armenian Company were allowed to bring and export silk and other goods from Russia in order to direct the transit of Persian silk to Europe through Russia. Merchants of the Astrakhan Indian court brought morocco to Russia, gems, pearls Cotton fabrics came from the countries of the East. Service people valued sabers made in Iranian Isfahan. In 1674, the first Russian caravan of O. Filatiev’s guest set off across the Mongolian steppes to distant China, from where they brought precious porcelain, gold and no less expensive tea, which at that time in Russia was considered not a drink, but a medicine.
Among the export goods, it was no longer furs and wax that predominated, but leather, lard, potash (potassium carbonate obtained from ash for making soap and glass), hemp, resin, i.e. raw materials and semi-finished products for subsequent processing. But bread until the second half of the 18th century. remained a strategic product (there was a shortage of grain on the domestic market), and its export was an instrument of foreign policy: for example, during the Thirty Years' War, the government of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich allowed the purchase of grain for the countries of the anti-Habsburg coalition - Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and England.
The British and Dutch fought for the Russian market, together making up half of the 1,300 merchants and foreigners known to us who traded in Russia. Russian merchants complained in petitions: “Those Germans in Russia have multiplied, they have become a great poverty, and all sorts of trades have been taken away from us.” In 1649, the privileges of English merchants were eliminated, and the New Trade Charter of 1667 prohibited retail trade for foreigners: when transporting goods from Arkhangelsk to Moscow and other cities, the amount of travel duties for them increased by 3-4 times compared to those paid by Russians merchants.
In 1654, the first geological exploration expedition set off from Moscow to New Earth. On the Volga in 1667, the first “European” ships of the Russian fleet were built by foreign craftsmen. In 1665, regular postal communication with Vilna and Riga began.
Finally, in the 17th century. the transition began from small-scale handicraft production, which by that time numbered 250 specialties, to manufacture based on a detailed division of labor (technology was not always used in manufactories). Back in the early 30s. XVII century State-owned copper smelting enterprises appeared in the Urals. Then private manufactories were founded - merchant rope yards in Vologda and Kholmogory, ironworks of the boyars I. D. Miloslavsky and B. I. Morozov; Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich himself had four vodka factories and a “morocco yard” in his palace household. Foreign experience and capital were also attracted: in the 30s. XVII century Dutch merchants A. Vinius, P. Marcelis and F. Akema built three ironworks in Tula and four in Kashira district. The Swede B. Coyet founded a glass manufactory, the Dutchman Fan Sweden founded a paper production. In total, throughout the 17th century. Up to 60 manufactories appeared in the country. And yet, manufacturing production in Russia was only taking its first steps and could not even satisfy the needs of the state: by the end of the 17th century. iron had to be imported from Sweden, and muskets for the army had to be ordered from Holland.
There is debate in science as to whether the enterprises of the 17th century can be considered capitalist. After all, distilleries, Ural or Tula factories worked primarily for the treasury at set prices and could only put surpluses on the market. At the Tula factories, masters and apprentices - Russian and foreign - had good earnings (from 30 to 100 rubles per year), and the bulk of the working people were assigned state peasants who worked at the enterprises in exchange for paying government taxes. Rather, we can say that Russian manufactories combined contradictory trends in the development of society: a new technical level of production with the use of forced labor and state control.
The weakness of the Russian city did not contribute to the development of capitalist relations. The population of the cities was divided (the archers, for example, were exempt from taxes for their service); people were in charge and judged by various government agencies. The state sent citizens of all categories to free service: to collect customs duties or sell salt and wine to the “sovereign”; they could be “transferred” to live in another city.
Business activity was undermined by periodically announced state monopolies on trade (furs, caviar, leather, lard, flax, etc.): then all owners of such goods had to immediately hand over them at a “declared” price. There were also local monopolies, when an enterprising person agreed with the governor that only he would have the right to bake gingerbread in the city, write petitions for the illiterate, or sharpen knives; after this came the order: “put him in check, Ivashki, and do not tell other outsiders” to engage in this or that trade. The state received a guaranteed income from such a monopolist. Was expensive business person credit: there were no banking offices in Russian cities, and money had to be borrowed from moneylenders at 20% per annum, since the law did not guarantee the collection of interest on the loan.
Russia remained on the periphery of the world market. Elements of bourgeois relations appeared in the country, but they were deformed by the serfdom system and state control. According to a number of scientists, pre-Petrine Russia, in terms of the degree of economic development, was at the level of England in the 18th-15th centuries, however, there are disagreements in science on the issue of the formation of capitalist relations in Russia.
Some authors (V.I. Buganov, A.A. Preobrazhensky, Yu.A. Tikhonov, etc.) prove the simultaneous development in the 17th-18th centuries. and feudal-serfdom and bourgeois relations. They consider the main factor in the development of capitalism to be the impact of the growing market on the feudal estate, as a result of which the landowner's estate became a commodity-money economy, and the peasant yard turned into the base of small-scale commodity production, which was accompanied by the stratification of the peasants. Other historians (L.V. Milov, A.S. Orlov, I.D. Kovalchenko) believe that quantitative changes in the economy and even market-related commodity production do not yet indicate the emergence of a capitalist economy, but the formation of a single all-Russian market took place on a non-capitalist basis.