Textbook: History of Russian culture: XIX century. Sentimentalism in Russian literature

Independent work No. 1

Subject: Historical – cultural process and periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century.

Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. At the beginning of the century, art was finally separated from court poetry and “album” poems; for the first time in the history of Russian literature, the features of a professional poet appeared; lyrics became more natural, simpler, and more humane. This century has given us such masters. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language. The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Sentimentalism: Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant of “human nature,” which distinguished it from classicism. Sentimentalism believed that the ideal of human activity was not the “reasonable” reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. His hero is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him. By origin and by conviction, the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; rich spiritual world the commoner is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism. Romanticism: ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment. Romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. The image of the “noble savage”, armed with “folk wisdom” and not spoiled by civilization, is in demand. Along with poetry, began to develop prose. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. Realism in art, 1) the truth of life, embodied by specific means of art. 2) A historically specific form of artistic consciousness of modern times, the beginning of which dates back either to the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or from the Enlightenment ("Enlightenment realism"), or from the 30s. 19th century (“actually realism”). The leading principles of realism of the 19th - 20th centuries: objective reflection of the essential aspects of life in combination with the height of the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social signs, and physical, intellectual and spiritual characteristics

^ Critical realism- an artistic method and literary movement that developed in the 19th century. Its main feature is the depiction of human character in organic connection with social circumstances, along with a deep social analysis of the inner world of man.

Independent work No. 2

Subject: Romanticism – leading direction Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century.

Romanticism(- a phenomenon of European culture in the 18th-19th centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; an ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. Characterized by the affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual , the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. designating a new direction opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.

Romanticism replaces the Age of Enlightenment and coincides with the industrial revolution, marked by the appearance of the steam engine, steam locomotive, steamship, photography and factory outskirts. If the Enlightenment is characterized by the cult of reason and civilization based on its principles, then romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. It was in the era of romanticism that the phenomena of tourism, mountaineering and picnics took shape, designed to restore the unity of man and nature. The image of the “noble savage”, armed with “folk wisdom” and not spoiled by civilization, is in demand. That is, the romanticists wanted to show an unusual person in unusual circumstances. In a word, the romanticists opposed progressive civilization.

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad and romantic drama are created. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible.

The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron,” can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

The first decades of the 19th century passed under the sign of romanticism. Zhukovsky is popular, the genius of Pushkin is blossoming, Lermontov is making himself known, Gogol’s creative path is beginning, and the critic Belinsky is actively participating in the development of Russian literature. Literature is increasingly becoming an integral part of the spiritual life of society.

Young people and students create associations that have a socio-political orientation. Thus, at Moscow University, in the circle of N.V. Stankevich - V.G. Belinsky, M.A. Bakunin, K.S. Aksakov participate; in the circle of A. I. Herzen - N. P. Ogarev. As Herzen argued, the “Russia of the future” existed precisely between these “boys who had just emerged from childhood” - they had “the heritage of universal science and purely folk Rus'.”

The autocratic government proclaims an ideological formula Russian society: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. It was made in 1833 in a circular from the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov, which stated “that public education should be carried out in the united spirit of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality.”

For Russian literature of the 19th century, realism can be considered the leading direction. In the literature of different countries, it arose in parallel with the successes of the exact sciences. The position of a realist writer is close to that of a scientist, since they consider the world around them as a subject of study, observation, and research.

Romanticism gravitated towards the depiction of an extraordinary personality, unusual subjects, spectacular contrasts and vivid forms of expression. Realism strives to depict the everyday existence of ordinary people, to reproduce the real flow of life. “To accurately and powerfully reproduce the truth, the reality of life, is the greatest happiness for a writer, even if this truth does not coincide with his own sympathies,” argued I. S. Typgenev.

Independent work No. 3

Subject: The main themes and motives in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin.

Reading the lyrics of A. S. Pushkin, the great Russian writer N. V. Gogol asked the question: “What became the subject of A. S. Pushkin’s poetry? :And he himself answered: “Everything has become an object.” In his work, the poet addressed the themes of love and friendship; he was concerned with the problems of freedom and the purpose of the poet. All of A. S. Pushkin’s lyrics can be imagined as an endless novel in verse, the main subject of which is the inner world of the lyrical hero with his feelings, experiences and aspirations, be it a gust of passion, a premonition of love or disappointment in the ideal. One of the most important in the poet’s work for me was the theme of love, which develops, like all the motives of his lyrics. In his youth, the lyrical hero of A. S. Pushkin sees joy and great universal value in love: ... my poems, merging and murmuring, Streams of love flow, flow full of you. In the darkness, your eyes shine before me, They smile at me - and I hear the sounds: My friend, my gentle friend... I love... yours... yours!.. But gradually, as the lyrical hero grows up, the theme of love is rethought, and now for A.S. Pushkin's feelings and experiences of the beloved woman become more important: But you tore your lips away from the bitter kiss; From the edge of gloomy exile You called me to another land. Lyrical hero Pushkin is able to appreciate any feeling and enjoy even the sadness of love: On the hills of Georgia lies the darkness of the night; Aragva makes noise in front of me. I feel sad and light; my sadness is light; My sadness is full of you...

Also in the works of A. S. Pushkin one can see another understanding of freedom: the romantic perception of liberty. One of my favorite poems is “To the Sea,” which manifests the principle of romantic dual worlds. The lyrical hero thinks of himself as an extraordinary person, he cannot find anything equal to himself in society and therefore turns to the natural world, to the elements: The desired limit of my soul! How often have I wandered along your shores, quiet and foggy, tormented by cherished intentions! The pinnacle of the theme of freedom is the poem (From Pindemonti), which is a hymn to personal freedom. I am especially close to the lines dedicated to chanting the honor and dignity of a person: Depend on the king, depend on the people - Do we really care? God be with them. Don’t give an account to anyone, only yourself Serve and please, for power, for the livery Don’t bend your conscience, your thoughts, your neck... Since Pushkin in his work addressed the themes of the poet and poetry, time and eternity, we must not forget about the poet's philosophical lyrics. The young lyricist perceived death very tragically, but realized that life does not stop, since A.S. Pushkin thought of himself as a very important link in the chain of generations, he managed to overcome the tragedy of death: Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! It’s not me who will see your mighty late age, when you outgrow my acquaintances and shield their old head from the eyes of the passerby. But let my grandson Hear your welcoming noise when, returning from a friendly conversation, full of cheerful and pleasant thoughts, He passes by you in the darkness of the night, And remembers me. The problem of time and eternity, in my opinion, is one of the main problems in the philosophical lyrics of A. S. Pushkin.

The problem of time and eternity, in my opinion, is one of the main problems in the philosophical lyrics of A. S. Pushkin. The lyrical hero realizes that man lives within the framework of time, and nature is eternal, and therefore she is indifferent to the tragedy of man: And let Young life play at the grave entrance, And let indifferent nature shine with eternal beauty.

At the end of his life, A. S. Pushkin returns to the theme of the poet and poetry in the poem “Monument”, where the lyrics are concerned with the theme of poetic immortality. In this work, political freedom and freedom of the creative individual merge. The main meaning is contained in the lines: No, all of me will not die - the soul in the treasured lyre will survive my ashes and flee decay - And I will be glorious as long as at least one drinker is alive in the sublunary world. The belief that his works will remain in the hearts and souls of generations fills the poet’s life with meaning and significance not only for A.S. Pushkin, but also for admirers of his talent. The older I become, the works of the great Russian lyricist take on more and more new meaning for me. Every time, re-reading works familiar from childhood, I discover a new Pushkin, because throughout his entire life the poet followed His moral ideals, which are so close to me.

Independent work No. 4

Subject: The main motives of the lyrics of M.O. Lermontov.

“Like any real, and even more so great, poet, Lermontov confessed his poetry, and, leafing through the volumes of his works, we can read the history of his soul and understand him as a poet and a person,” wrote Irakli Andronikov. Lermontov's talent blossomed at a time when the noble revolution was defeated, and new generations of fighters were just being formed. Therefore, the motifs of bitterness, melancholy and loneliness occupy a significant place in his work. Faith in the people, in their powerful forces, largely helped him defeat these sentiments. Lermontov is a national poet. We are captivated by the beauty and humanity of Lermontov’s poems. We hear in his poetry a violent protest against the “gloomy reality”, a proud call for freedom and justice. The themes of Lermontov's lyrics are varied. Many of his works are a bitter thought about the fate of the younger generation of his era. One of the leading themes of Lermontov's poetry is the theme of hatred of autocracy. It illuminates the entire creative path of the poet. The heroic beginning of his struggle against autocracy and the “light” was the poem “The Death of a Poet,” written with mental pain and anger. Lermontov castigates the “envious and stuffy world”, the “executioners of Freedom”, the “greedy crowd” standing at the throne. He contrasts them with Pushkin, who rebelled against the “opinions of the world,” whose death calls for vengeance. It was she who announced to Russia the emergence of a new poet, the successor of the great Pushkin. In Russia in the 1930s, Lermontov was one of the few poets who openly challenged ruling society. A striking example of this is the poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...”. Forced to live among the secular mob, the poet deeply despises the intrigue, lies, emptiness and soullessness of these people. The poem ends with a challenge to the “light”: Oh, how I want to confuse their gaiety, And boldly throw in their eyes an iron verse, Doused with bitterness and anger!.. The theme of inertia of the younger generation occupies a very large place in Lermontov’s work. Even the best representatives of the youth of that time did not know how and where to apply their efforts. In the end, many of them became indifferent to everything and became “superfluous people.” The poem “Duma” is a civil trial of one’s generation. The author shows his passivity and emptiness of life in an era when struggle is necessary. The theme of the homeland (“Motherland”, “Borodino”) occupies a large place in Lermontov’s lyrics. Lermontov contrasts his “strange” love for the fatherland with the false patriotism of the ruling classes. In no other work did he achieve such poetic clarity as in the poem “Motherland”. Wide lines, like steppe expanse, accompany the poet’s thoughts when his gaze turns to the Russian nature dear to his heart. At the sight of the occasional contentment and simple joy of the hardworking peasants, the poet is overcome by a feeling of joy that is incomprehensible to the “patriots” from the noble nobility, who do not know how to look “with a joy unfamiliar to many...”. Lermontov's road native nature, but the simple Russian person is even more precious. Belinsky called this poem “Pushkin’s best” thing, meaning Pushkin’s optimism, faith in life and people, which Lermontov inherited. But the dagger turned into a “golden toy,” inglorious and harmless. Previously, the poet’s voice called to fight: “It used to be that the measured sound of your mighty words / Inflamed a fighter for battle...” But now Lermontov does not see such a singer among his contemporaries. The poem ends with the call: Will you wake up again, mocked prophet? Or will you never, in response to the voice of vengeance, tear out your blade from a golden scabbard, covered with the rust of contempt?.. Years of reaction lay a heavy burden on the shoulders of progressive people. Deep sadness and anxiety are heard in many of Lermontov’s poems: “I go out alone onto the road...”, “An oak leaf has torn off from a branch of my birth...”, “Clouds”, “Cliff”. In the poem “Both Bored and Sad,” the poet writes: And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to in a moment of spiritual adversity... Desires! The poet is tired of following his “siliceous path.” Nature, sounding in each of his poems, calls for peace (“The earth sleeps in a blue radiance...”). The sad tone of Lermontov's poems never turned into despair. The poet never submitted to fate. The rebellious spirit of poetry, its lyricism, depth of thought, amazing musicality and perfection of poetry place Lermontov among the greatest poets.

Independent work No. 5

Subject: The significance of N.V.’s creativity Gogol in Russian literature.

The merciless truth spoken by Gogol about his contemporary society, his ardent love for the people, the artistic perfection of his works - all this determined the role that the great writer played in the history of Russian and world literature, in establishing the principles of critical realism, in the development of democratic social consciousness.

Relying on the creative achievements of his glorious predecessors (Fonvizin, Griboedov, Krylov, Pushkin), Gogol paved new paths in literature, continuing and developing its wonderful traditions: connection with life, nationality, humanism. In science recent years More and more often, doubts arise about the validity of the judgments of the outstanding literary critic M. M. Bakhtin that Gogol’s laughter is “purely folk festive laughter”, which has nothing in common with satire. Meanwhile, most of Gogol’s works, as D. P. Nikolaev showed in a special study, are imbued with satirical pathos to one degree or another. Gogol acutely felt the unnaturalness of all social forms of life that existed then, their anti-humanistic essence.

This critical trend grew in Gogol from faith in the limitless spiritual possibilities of the individual, from the idea of ​​moral values ​​inherent in the people's consciousness, ideals from the height of which the satirist opposed everything that disfigured and distorted the human personality. The concept of the ideal also existed in romantic literature. But there the ideal was often perceived as an unattainable dream, opposed to reality.

For Gogol, the ideal is not divorced from reality; it is perceived by the writer as a standard of life that existed in the past (“Taras Bulba”) and, therefore, possible and achievable in the present.

This is where the power of satirical negation comes from, organically connected with the passionate desire through the means of fiction to achieve the speedy achievement of the public good, to affirm the high purpose of man, to help him get rid of everything that can lead to moral death.

The harsh and wise lessons of Gogol, so important and necessary for us today, are lessons of love for the Motherland, respect and admiration for its history, nature, people, this is a warning about the terrible danger that comes with the loss of moral criteria, the lack of spirituality that always accompanies the acquirers , predators, people absorbed in the pursuit of rank or wealth, alien to high spiritual interests.

Gogol's immortal creativity enriched the principles of artistic representation of reality and revealed the inexhaustible possibilities of using the grotesque, fantasy, and symbolism in realistic literature. “Gogol’s range was limitless,” wrote M. T. Rylsky.

Not only laughter, but also the creepy fantasy of “Terrible Revenge” and “The Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala”, and the heroic pathos, patriotic solemnity of “Taras Bulba”, and the poetic melodiousness of “May Night”, and the deep emotion of “Portrait”, and the grotesqueness of “The Nose” " - one of the most fantastic and most realistic works of world literature, and boundless pity for the poor man, which manifested itself so strongly in “The Overcoat” and found its continuation in the early (and not only early) works of Dostoevsky, and in the works of Turgenev, Leskov , Gleb Uspensky, Garshin, Chekhov.”

Independent work No. 6

Subject: Social and cultural novelty of Ostrovsky’s dramaturgy.

Dramaturgy is a genre that involves active interaction between the writer and the reader in considering social issues raised by the author. A. N. Ostrovsky believed that drama has a strong impact on society, the text is part of the performance, but without staging the play does not live. Hundreds and thousands will view it, but read much less. Nationality is the main feature of the drama of the 1860s: heroes from the people, descriptions of the life of the lower strata of the population, the search for a positive national character. Drama has always had the ability to respond to current issues. Ostrovsky's work was at the center of the dramaturgy of this time; Yu. M. Lotman calls his plays the pinnacle of Russian dramaturgy. The creator of ", "Russian national theater“I. A. Goncharov called Ostrovsky, and N. A. Dobrolyubov called his dramas “plays of life,” since in his plays the private life of the people develops into a picture of modern society. In the first great comedy, “We Will Be Our Own People” (1850), it is through intra-family conflicts that social contradictions are shown. It was with this play that Ostrovsky’s theater began; it was in it that new principles of stage action, actor behavior, and theatrical entertainment first appeared.

Ostrovsky's work was new for Russian drama. His works are characterized by the complexity and complexity of conflicts; his element is socio-psychological drama, comedy of manners. Features of his style are speaking names, specific author's remarks, original names of plays, among which proverbs are often used, comedies based on folklore motifs. The conflict in Ostrovsky's plays is mainly based on the incompatibility of the hero with the environment. His dramas can be called psychological; they contain not only external conflict, but also internal moral drama. Everything in the plays historically accurately recreates the life of society, from which the playwright takes his plots. The new hero of Ostrovsky's dramas - a simple man - determines the originality of the content, and Ostrovsky creates a “folk drama”. He accomplished a huge task - he made the “little man” a tragic hero. Ostrovsky saw his duty as a dramatic writer in making the analysis of what is happening the main content of the drama. “A dramatic writer... does not invent what happened - it gives life, history, legend; its main task is to show on the basis of what psychological data some event took place and why exactly this way and not otherwise” - this is what, according to the author, expresses the essence of drama. Ostrovsky regarded drama as a mass art that educates people, and defined the purpose of theater as a “school of social morals.” His first productions shocked us with their truthfulness and simplicity, with honest heroes with a “warm heart.” The playwright created by “combining the sublime with the comic,” he created forty-eight works and invented more than five hundred characters.

Ostrovsky's plays are realistic. In the merchant environment, which he observed day after day and believed that it united the past and present of society, Ostrovsky reveals those social conflicts that reflect the life of Russia. And if in “The Snow Maiden” he recreates the patriarchal world, through which modern problems can only be guessed, then his “Thunderstorm” is an open protest of the individual, a person’s desire for happiness and independence. This was perceived by playwrights as a statement of the creative principle of love of freedom, which could become the basis of a new drama. Ostrovsky never used the definition of “tragedy”, designating his plays as “comedies” and “dramas”, sometimes providing explanations in the spirit of “pictures of Moscow life”, “scenes from village life”, “scenes from the life of the outback”, indicating that that we are talking about the life of an entire social environment. Dobrolyubov said that Ostrovsky created a new type of dramatic action: without didactics, the author analyzed the historical origins of modern phenomena in society. Historical approach to family and social relations- the pathos of Ostrovsky’s creativity. Among his heroes are people of different ages, divided into two camps - young and old. For example, as Yu. M. Lotman writes, in “The Thunderstorm” Kabanikha is “the keeper of antiquity,” and Katerina “carries within herself the creative beginning of development,” which is why she wants to fly like a bird.

The dispute between antiquity and newness, as the literary critic notes, constitutes an important aspect of the dramatic conflict in Ostrovsky’s plays. Traditional forms of life are considered as eternally renewed, and only in this does the playwright see their viability... The old enters into the new, into modern life, in which it can play the role of either a “fettering” element, oppressing its development, or a stabilizing element, ensuring the strength of the emerging novelty, depending on the content of the old that preserves the people’s life.” The author always sympathizes with the young heroes, poeticizes their desire for freedom and selflessness. The title of A. N. Dobrolyubov’s article “A Ray of Light in a Dark Kingdom” fully reflects the role of these heroes in society. They are psychologically similar to each other; the author often uses already developed characters. The theme of a woman’s position in the world of calculation is also repeated in “Poor Bride”, “Warm Heart”, “Dowry”.

Independent work No. 7

Subject: Comprehension of the ideal of a person living in a transitional era (based on the novel by I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”).

The novel "Oblomov" was written by I.A. Goncharov in 1859 and immediately attracted the attention of critics with the problems posed in the novel. "Oblomov" is a socio-psychological novel depicting the destructive influence of the noble-landowner environment on the human personality. The author depicted Russian life in the first half of the 19th century, which he observed from childhood, with objective accuracy and completeness. The main character of the novel is Oblomov Ilya Ilyich - a man of thirty-two or three years old, of average height, pleasant appearance, with dark gray eyes, but with the absence of any definite idea, any concentration in his facial features. The plot of the novel is the life path of Ilya Ilyich, from childhood until his death. The main theme of the novel is “Oblomovism” - a way of life, a life ideology; this is apathy, passivity, isolation from reality, contemplation of life around oneself, but the main thing is the absence of work, practical inactivity. The concept of “Oblomovism” is applicable not only to Oblomovka with its inhabitants; it is a “reflection of Russian life”, the key to unraveling many of its phenomena. In the 19th century, the life of many Russian landowners was similar to the life of the Oblomovites, and therefore “Oblomovism” can be called the “dominant disease” of that time. The essence of “Oblomovism” is revealed by Goncharov through the depiction of Oblomov’s life, most of which the hero spends lying on the sofa, dreaming and making all kinds of plans. The upbringing and atmosphere in which little Oblomov grew up played a huge role in the formation of his character and worldview. Ilya Ilyich was born in Oblomovka - this “blessed corner of the earth”, where “there is nothing grandiose, wild and gloomy”, there are “no terrible storms, no destruction”, where deep silence, peace and imperturbable calm reign. On the Oblomov estate, the traditional midday was “an all-consuming, invincible sleep, a true likeness of death.” And little Ilyusha grew up in this atmosphere, surrounded by care and attention: his mother, nanny and the entire numerous retinue of the Oblomov family showered the boy with affection and praise. The slightest attempt by the child to do anything on his own was immediately suppressed: he was often forbidden to run anywhere, and at the age of fourteen he was not even able to dress himself. Thus, Ilya Ilyich became more and more “saturated with Oblomovism,” and an ideal of life gradually formed in his mind. Already an adult Oblomov was characterized, in my opinion, by childish daydreaming. Life in his dreams seemed to him calm, measured, stable, and his beloved woman was more reminiscent of a mother in her qualities - loving, caring, sympathetic. Oblomov was so immersed in the world of his dreams that he completely broke away from reality, which he was unable to accept. But the habit of receiving satisfaction of his desires not from his own efforts, but from others, developed moral slavery in him. By the age of 32, Ilya Ilyich had turned into a “baibak” - an apathetic creature whose life was limited to an apartment on Gorokhovaya Street, a robe made of Persian fabric and lying on the sofa. Why this struggle when you can live on the money he receives from the estate. Gradually he breaks with the service, and then with society. Lying down became his normal state. A robe and a sofa replace all the joys of life for him. Sometimes Oblomov tried to read, but reading tired him. This condition kills Oblomov’s positive human qualities, of which there are many in him. He is honest, humane, smart. The writer more than once emphasizes the “dove’s meekness” in him. Stolz recalls that once, about ten years ago, he had spiritual ideals. He read Rousseau, Schiller, Goethe, Byron, studied mathematics, studied English, thought about the fate of Russia, and wanted to serve his homeland. But Oblomov did not find use for his enormous moral and spiritual potential; he turned out to be a “superfluous person.” It seems to me that if it were not for his upbringing, which gave rise to Oblomov’s inability to work, this man would have benefited those around him and would not have lived his life in vain. But, as Ilya Ilyich himself says, “Oblomovism” ruined him, it was she who did not allow him to get off the couch and start a new, full life. Stolz, Volkov, Sudbinsky, Penkin, Alekseev, Tarantyev - they all tried to bring Oblomov out of his state of deadening peace and bring him into life. Unfortunately, nothing came of this, because Ilya Ilyich was too firmly attached to peace: “I have grown to this hole with a sore spot: try to tear it off - there will be death.” Oblomovism completely absorbed Ilya Ilyich, which surrounded him in childhood; it did not leave him until his death. A kind, intelligent man, Oblomov, is lying on the sofa in a comfortable dressing gown, and life is leaving irrevocably. The wonderful girl Olga Ilyinskaya, who fell in love with Oblomov and tried in vain to save him, asks: “What ruined you? There is no name for this evil... - There is... “Oblomovism,” our hero answers. What is the reason for this inactivity? look, lack of will and laziness. These destructive character traits do not allow Oblomov to serve his ideals, to work on himself, but in his present situation he could not find anything he liked, because he did not understand the meaning of life at all, and could not reach the rational. views on their relationships with others.

Back at the end of the 18th century, in Russian literature, in place of the dominant direction of classicism, a new movement arose, called sentimentalism, which came from the French word sens, meaning feeling. Sentimentalism as an artistic movement, generated by the process of struggle against absolutism, appeared in the second half of the 18th century in a number of Western European countries, primarily in England (the poetry of D. Thomson, the prose of L. Stern and Richardson), then in France (the work of J.-J. . Rousseau) and Germany (the early work of J. V. Goethe, F. Schiller). Sentimentalism, which arose on the basis of new socio-economic relations, was alien to the glorification of statehood and class limitations inherent in classicism.

In contrast to the latter, he brought to the fore issues of personal life, the cult of sincere pure feelings and nature. Empty social life, depraved morals high society sentimentalists contrasted the idyll of village life, selfless friendship, touching love near the family hearth, in the lap of nature. These feelings were reflected in numerous “Travels”, which came into fashion after Stern’s novel “Sentimental Journey”, which gave its name to this literary movement.

In Russia, one of the first works of this kind was the famous “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A. N. Radishchev (1790). Karamzin also paid tribute to this fashion, publishing “Letters of a Russian Traveler” in 1798, followed by P. Sumarokov’s “Travel to the Crimea and Bessarabia” (1800), “Journey to Midday Russia.” V. Izmailov and “Another Journey to Little Russia” by Shalikov (1804). The popularity of this genre was explained by the fact that the author could freely express thoughts here that gave rise to new cities, meetings, and landscapes. These reflections were characterized for the most part by increased sensitivity and moralism. But, in addition to this “lyrical” orientation, sentimentalism also had a certain social order.

Having emerged in the era of Enlightenment, with its inherent interest in the personality and spiritual world of man, and an ordinary, “little” man, sentimentalism also adopted some features of the ideology of the “third estate,” especially since during this period representatives of this estate also appeared in Russian literature - common writers.

Thus, sentimentalism brings to Russian literature a new idea of ​​honor, this is no longer the antiquity of the family, but the high moral dignity of a person. In one of the stories, the “villager” notes that only a person with a clear conscience can have a good name. “For a “little” person - both a hero and a commoner writer who came to literature, the problem of honor takes on special significance; It’s not easy for him to defend his dignity in a society where class prejudices are so strong.”

Characteristic of sentimentalism is also the assertion of the spiritual equality of people, regardless of their position in society. N. S. Smirnov, a former runaway serf, then a soldier, the author of the sentimental story “Zara,” prefaced her with an epigraph from the Bible: “And I have a heart, just like you.”

Along with describing the “life of the heart,” sentimentalist writers paid great attention to issues of education. At the same time, the “teacher” educational function of literature was recognized as the most important.

Russian sentimentalism found its most complete expression in the works of Karamzin. His “Poor Liza,” “Notes of a Traveler,” “Julia” and a number of other stories are distinguished by all the features characteristic of this movement. Like the classic of French sentimentalism J.-J. Rousseau, in whose works Karamzin, by his own admission, was attracted by “sparks of passionate philanthropy” and “sweet sensitivity,” his works are filled with humane sentiments. Karamzin evoked the sympathy of readers for his characters, excitedly conveying their experiences. Karamzin's heroes are moral people, gifted with great sensitivity, selfless, for whom affection is more important than worldly well-being. Thus, the heroine of Karamzin’s story “Natalya, the Boyar’s Daughter” accompanies her husband to the war so as not to be separated from her beloved. Love for her is higher than danger or even death. Alois from the story “Sierra Morena” takes his own life, unable to bear the betrayal of his bride. In the traditions of sentimentalism, the spiritual life of characters literary works Karamzin's work takes place against the backdrop of nature, the phenomena of which (thunderstorm, storm or gentle sun) accompany people's experiences as an accompaniment.

Thus, the story about the sad fate of the heroine of “Poor Lisa” begins with a description of the gloomy autumn landscape, the appearance of which seems to echo the subsequent dramatic love story of a peasant girl. The author, on whose behalf the story is told, walks through the ruins of the monastery “to grieve with nature on the dark days of autumn.” The winds howl terribly within the walls of the deserted monastery, between the coffins overgrown with tall grass and in the dark passages of the cells. “There, leaning on the ruins of tombstones, I listen to the dull groan of time.” Nature, or “nature,” as Karamzin more often called it, not only participates in people’s experiences, it nourishes their feelings. In the story “Sierra Morena,” the romantic landscape inspires the owner of the castle, Elvira: “ Strong winds agitated and twisted the air, crimson lightning curled in the black sky, or the pale moon rose above gray clouds - Elvira loved the horrors of nature: they exalted, delighted, nourished her soul.”

However, it was not only the “history of feeling” that attracted contemporaries in Karamzin’s works. The reader found in them a poetic depiction of Russian life, Russian people, Russian nature, Russian history. As Al testified. Bestuzhev, Karamzin “wanted us to the legends of our antiquity.” Karamzin's historical stories were characterized by the same features of sentimental sensitivity that distinguished his other works; their historicism was instructive in nature: the author used a historical plot to prove some moral sentiment.

However, the bourgeois morality of sentimentalism, glorifying the spiritual values ​​of man and quite applicable to fictitious circumstances, was difficult to combine with the serfdom of Russia.

An appeal to contemporary Russian life revealed the contradictory nature of the writer’s worldview. In one of his most popular stories, “Poor Liza,” Karamzin, revealing with great sympathy the “life of the heart” of the heroine, convinced readers that “even peasant women know how to feel.” This humane statement was a bold innovation for the time. Karamzin was the first Russian writer to introduce the image of a peasant girl into literature, endowing her with high virtues. The peasant woman Liza, in whom her chosen one Erast saw only a simple-minded “shepherdess,” commits an act that proved that, in defending her love, she did not want to put up with the prejudices of society. Erast obeys the laws of the “world” and leaves Lisa in order to save himself from gambling debts by marrying a rich bride.

However, sincerely mourning the death of Lisa, the author refused to explain the cause of the misfortune. Problem social inequality, which essentially determined the tragedy of the young peasant woman’s love for her master, was avoided in the story. Moreover, even the image of the “insidious seducer” Erast is drawn by Karamzin without condemnation, even with sympathy - an enlightened, sensitive nobleman, he is both to blame and not to blame for what happened. Not malice, and only the young man’s frivolity was to blame for his actions. In addition, as reported in the conclusion, the news of Lisa’s death made him unhappy, “he could not be consoled and considered himself a murderer.” So, contrary to his moralizing tendency, Karamzin passed over in silence here social conflict, which was the true cause of the tragedy. The attitude of sentimentalist writers to the social problems of contemporary Russia was quite ambiguous. If Radishchev’s writings contained a fierce denunciation of serfdom and the political system under which these inhuman relations exist, then in the sentimental stories of writers of the early 19th century, in most cases there is not only a condemnation of serfdom, but there is their idealization, their depiction as “fatherly” care landowner about his peasants: “The good landowner sincerely rejoiced at their happiness and shared it with them in his sensitive heart.”

Karamzin did not share either one or the other position. Karamzin’s attitude to serfdom, as well as his historical views, represented a rather complex combination of a monarchical worldview with the influence of idealistic philosophy of the 18th century, especially the teachings of J.-J. Rousseau. Convinced that the basis of world progress is the spiritual perfection of people, Karamzin, a historian and thinker, naturally opposed gross violence against the individual, “tyranny” even on the royal throne. Thus, he praised Catherine II for “purifying the autocracy from the impurities of tyranny.” From the same position, he welcomed the policies of Alexander I. Of course, as a humanist and supporter of education, he could not approve of the cruelty of serfdom. The author of one of the monographs about Karamzin, N. Ya. Eidelman, cites a characteristic episode that illuminates the historian’s attitude towards serfdom: “Pushkin recalled a conversation in which he, challenging Karamzin, said: “So, you prefer slavery to freedom?” Karamzin flared up and called his slanderer." However, the condemnation of “tyranny” did not exclude the apologetics of autocracy, the belief that Russia is held by it, and, consequently, the categorical denial of the violent breakdown of the existing order. While establishing autocracy, Karamzin, as a historian, could not help but see the connection between the institution of the feudal monarchy and serfdom. Hence the duality of his attitude to this issue, which was also expressed in literary works.

Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” evoked numerous imitations. Many authors varied the plot of “Poor Lisa”, however, abandoning the overly tragic ending. Following Karamzin’s story, “Beautiful Tatyana, Living at the Foot of the Sparrow Mountains” by V.V. Izmailov, “Dasha - a Country Girl” by P.Yu. Lvov and others appeared. It is noteworthy that the love of a master and a peasant woman was not at all condemned in them; on the contrary: “the inequality of fortune, intensifying their passion, exalts their virtues,” notes the author of one of these stories.

The authors of sentimental stories sought to contrast relationships based on calculation with other, unselfish feelings. Lvov’s story emphasizes the love of the heroine, devoid of any selfish motives, who admits: “He just gave me so many things - silver, gold, beads, and ribbons; but I didn’t take anything, I only needed his love.”

Thus, Russian sentimentalism introduced into literature - and through it into life - new moral and aesthetic concepts, which were warmly received by many readers, but, unfortunately, were at odds with life. Readers brought up on the ideals of sentimentalism, which proclaimed human feelings as the highest value, bitterly discovered that the measure of attitude towards people still remained nobility, wealth, and position in society. However, the beginnings of this new ethics, expressed at the beginning of the century in such seemingly naive works of sentimentalist writers, will eventually develop in the public consciousness and will contribute to its democratization. In addition, sentimentalism enriched Russian literature with linguistic transformations. The role of Karamzin was especially significant in this regard. However, the principles he proposed for the formation of the Russian literary language aroused fierce criticism from conservative writers and served as the reason for the emergence of the so-called “disputes about language” that captured Russian writers at the beginning of the 19th century.

The 19th century gave birth to a large number of talented Russian prose writers and poets. Their works quickly burst into the world and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century have become the subject of study in a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, the prerequisites for such a rapid cultural rise were events in political and social life.

Story

The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in XVIII century Since social life in Russia was relatively measured, the next century included many important vicissitudes that influenced not only the further development of society and politics, but also the formation of new trends and directions in literature.

The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of words was A.S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.

Literary language

The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to his comprehensive development and excellent education. One day he set himself the goal of achieving all the peaks in education. And he achieved it by the age of thirty-seven. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and characteristics of the Russian soul. This literary type had no analogues in our literature before.

Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, a person with at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of “Eugene Onegin” who made a revolution in Russian literature.

Romanticism

This concept originates from Western medieval epic. But by the 19th century it acquired new shades. Originating in Germany, romanticism penetrated into the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by a desire for mystical motives and folk legends. Poetry traces the desire to transform life for the better and the chanting folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetic creativity.

The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century are marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite often found in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.

As for prose, new forms of the story have appeared here, among which the fantastic genre occupies an important place. Vivid examples of romantic prose - early works Nikolai Gogol.

Sentimentalism

With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is sensual and focuses on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century he gained a number of followers.

Satirical prose

It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting your creative journey with a description small homeland, this author later moved to all-Russian social topics. It is difficult today to imagine what Russian literature of the 19th century would have been like without this master of satire. The general characteristics of his prose in this genre come down not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirical writer “traversed” almost all layers of society.

A masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel “The Golovlevs,” dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world of landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence

Realistic novel

In the second half of the century, realistic prose developed. Romantic ideals turned out to be untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a concept as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general description briefly represents a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the occurrence of certain phenomena. As for Dostoevsky's realistic prose, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author became a reaction to the mood that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting prototypes of people he knew in his works, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.

In the first decades, the country glorified Mikhail Kutuzov, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. The general characteristics of the end of the century can be summed up in a few words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the entire people, but its individual representatives that came to the fore. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person.”

Folk poem

In the years when the realistic novel took a dominant position, poetry faded into the background. The general characteristics of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century allow us to trace long haul from dreamy poetry to true romance. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be attributed to one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.

End of the century

At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov became one of the most read authors. Despite the fact that at the beginning creative path critics accused the writer of being cold towards current social issues; his works received undeniable public recognition. Continuing to develop the image of the “little man” created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas that developed at the end of the 19th century could not help but influence the lives of individuals.

In the late XIX literature century, revolutionary sentiments prevailed. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.

General characteristics of the 19th century deserve more close attention. Each major representative of this period created his own artistic world, the heroes of which dreamed of the impossible, fought against social evil, or experienced their own small tragedy. And the main task of their authors was to reflect the realities of a century rich in social and political events.

The beginning of the 19th century was unique time for Russian literature. In literary salons and on the pages of magazines there was a struggle between supporters of various literary movements: classicism and sentimentalism, the educational movement and emerging romanticism.

In the first years of the 19th century, the dominant position in Russian literature was occupied by sentimentalism, inextricably linked with the names of Karamzin and his followers. And in 1803, a book entitled “Discourses on the old and new syllable of the Russian language” was published, the author of which A. S. Shishkov very strongly criticized the “new syllable” of the sentimentalists. The followers of the Karamzin reform of the literary language give the classicist Shishkov a sharp rebuke. A long-term controversy begins, in which all the literary forces of that time were involved to one degree or another.

Why is there controversy on special literary question acquired such social significance? First of all, because behind the discussions about the style there were more global problems: how to portray a person of modern times, who should be a positive and who should be a negative hero, what freedom is and what patriotism is. After all, these are not just words - this is an understanding of life, and therefore its reflection in literature.

Classicists with their very clear principles and rules brought into literary process such important qualities of the hero as honor, dignity, patriotism, without blurring space and time, thereby bringing the hero closer to reality. They showed it in “truthful language”, conveying sublime civic content. These features will remain in the literature of the 19th century, despite the fact that classicism itself will leave the stage of literary life. When you read “Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov, see for yourself.

Close to the classicists educators, for which political and philosophical themes were undoubtedly leading, most often turned to the ode genre. But under their pen, the ode from the classic genre turned into a lyrical one. Because the most important task poet-educator - to show his civic position, to express the feelings that take possession of him. In the 19th century, the poetry of the Romantic Decembrists would be inextricably linked with educational ideas.

There seemed to be a certain affinity between the Enlightenmentists and the Sentimentalists. However, this was not the case. Enlightenmentists also reproach the sentimentalists for “feigned sensitivity,” “false compassion,” “loving sighs,” “passionate exclamations,” as did the classicists.

Sentimentalists, despite excessive (from a modern point of view) melancholy and sensitivity, they show sincere interest in a person’s personality and character. They begin to be interested in an ordinary, simple person, his inner world. A new hero appears - real person, interesting to others. And with him, the everyday comes to the pages of works of art, everyday life. It is Karamzin who first makes an attempt to reveal this topic. His novel "A Knight of Our Time" opens a gallery of such heroes.

Romantic lyrics- These are mainly lyrics of moods. Romantics deny vulgar everyday life; they are interested in the mental and emotional nature of the individual, its aspiration towards the mysterious infinity of a vague ideal. The innovation of the romantics in artistic knowledge reality consisted in a polemic with the fundamental ideas of Enlightenment aesthetics, the assertion that art is an imitation of nature. The Romantics defended the thesis of the transformative role of art. The romantic poet thinks of himself as a creator creating his own new world, because the old way of life does not suit him. Reality, full of insoluble contradictions, was subjected to severe criticism by the romantics. The world of emotional unrest is seen by poets as enigmatic and mysterious, expressing a dream about the ideal of beauty, about moral and ethical harmony.

In Russia, romanticism acquires a pronounced national identity. Remember the romantic poems and poems of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov, the early works of N. V. Gogol.

Romanticism in Russia is not only new literary movement. Romantic writers not only create works, they are the “creators” of their own biography, which will ultimately become their “moral story.” In the future, the idea of ​​the inextricable connection between art and self-education, the artist’s lifestyle and his work will become stronger and established in Russian culture. Gogol will reflect on this on the pages of his romantic story “Portrait”.

You see how intricately intertwined styles and views, artistic means, philosophical ideas and life...

As a result of the interaction of all these areas, a realism as a new stage in the knowledge of man and his life in literature. A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the founder of this trend. We can say that the beginning of the 19th century was the era of the birth and formation of two leading literary methods: romanticism and realism.

The literature of this period had another feature. This is the unconditional predominance of poetry over prose.

Once Pushkin, while still a young poet, admired the poems of one young man and showed them to his friend and teacher K.N. Batyushkov. He read and returned the manuscript to Pushkin, indifferently remarking: “Who doesn’t write smooth poetry now!”

This story speaks volumes. The ability to write poetry was then a necessary part of noble culture. And against this background, Pushkin’s appearance was not accidental, it was prepared by the general high level culture, including poetic.

Pushkin had predecessors who prepared his poetry, and contemporary poets - friends and rivals. All of them represented the golden age of Russian poetry—the so-called 10-30s of the 19th century. Pushkin- starting point. Around him we distinguish three generations of Russian poets - the older, the middle (to which Alexander Sergeevich himself belonged) and the younger. This division is conditional, and of course simplifies the real picture.

Let's start with the older generation. Ivan Andreevich Krylov(1769-1844) belonged to the 18th century by birth and upbringing. However, he began to write the fables that made him famous only in the 19th century, and although his talent manifested itself only in this genre, Krylov became the herald of a new poetry, accessible to the reader by language, which opened up to him the world of folk wisdom. I. A. Krylov stood at the origins of Russian realism.

It should be noted that the main problem of poetry at all times, and at the beginning of the 19th century too, is the problem of language. The content of poetry is unchanged, but the form... Revolutions and reforms in poetry are always linguistic. Such a “revolution” occurred in the work of Pushkin’s poetic teachers - V. A. Zhukovsky and K. N. Batyushkov.
With works Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky(1783-1852) you have already met. You probably remember his “The Tale of Tsar Berendey...”, the ballad “Svetlana”, but perhaps you don’t know that many of the works of foreign poetry you read were translated by this lyricist. Zhukovsky is a great translator. He got used to the text he was translating so much that the result was an original work. This happened with many of the ballads he translated. However, the poet’s own poetic creativity was of great importance in Russian literature. He abandoned the ponderous, outdated, pompous language of poetry of the 18th century, immersed the reader in the world of emotional experiences, and created new image a poet with a keen sense of the beauty of nature, melancholic, prone to tender sadness and reflections on the transience of human life.

Zhukovsky is the founder of Russian romanticism, one of the creators of the so-called “light poetry”. “Easy” not in the sense of frivolous, but in contrast to the previous, solemn poetry, created as if for palace halls. Zhukovsky's favorite genres are elegy and song, addressed to a close circle of friends, created in silence and solitude. Their contents are deeply personal dreams and memories. Instead of pompous thunder - melodiousness, musical sound verse that expresses the poet’s feelings more powerfully than written words. No wonder Pushkin in his famous poem"I remember wonderful moment..." used the image created by Zhukovsky - "a genius of pure beauty."

Another poet of the older generation of the golden age of poetry - Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov(1787-1855). His favorite genre is a friendly message that celebrates the simple joys of life.

Pushkin highly valued the lyrics of the legendary Denis Vasilievich Davydov(1784-1839) - hero of the Patriotic War of 1812, organizer of partisan detachments. The poems of this author glorify the romance of military life and hussar life. Not considering himself a true poet, Davydov disdained poetic conventions, and this only made his poems gain in liveliness and spontaneity.

As for the middle generation, Pushkin valued it above others Evgeny Abramovich Baratynsky(Boratynsky) (1800-1844). He called his work “the poetry of thought.” This philosophical lyrics. The hero of Baratynsky's poems is disappointed in life, sees in it a chain of meaningless suffering, and even love does not become salvation.

Lyceum friend of Pushkin Delvig gained popularity with songs “in the Russian spirit” (his romance “The Nightingale” to the music of A. Alyabyev is widely known). Languages became famous for the image he created of a student - a merry fellow and a freethinker, a kind of Russian vagante. Vyazemsky possessed a merciless irony that permeated his poems, which were mundane in theme and at the same time deep in thought.

At the same time, another tradition of Russian poetry continued to exist and develop - civil. It was connected with names Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795—1826), Alexander Alexandrovich Bestuzhev (1797—1837), Wilhelm Karlovich Kuchelbecker(life years - 1797-1846) and many other poets. They saw in poetry a means of struggle for political freedom, and in the poet - not a “pet of the muses”, a “son of laziness”, avoiding public life, but a stern citizen calling for a battle for the bright ideals of justice.

The words of these poets did not diverge from their deeds: they were all participants in the uprising in Senate Square in 1825, convicted (and Ryleev executed) in the “case of December 14th”. “Bitter is the fate of poets of all tribes; Fate will execute Russia the hardest of all...” - this is how V. K. Kuchelbecker began his poem. It was the last one he wrote with his own hand: years in prison had deprived him of his sight.

Meanwhile, a new generation of poets was emerging. The first poems were written by the young Lermontov. A society arose in Moscow wise men- lovers of philosophy who interpreted German philosophy in the Russian manner. These were the future founders of Slavophilism Stepan Petrovich Shevyrev (1806—1861), Alexey Stepanovich Khomyakov(1804-1860) and others. The most gifted poet of this circle was the one who died early Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevitinov(1805—1827).

And one more thing interesting phenomenon this period. Many of the poets we named turned in one way or another to folk poetic traditions, to folklore. But since they were nobles, their works “in the Russian spirit” were still perceived as stylization, as something secondary compared to the main line of their poetry. And in the 30s of the 19th century, a poet appeared who, both by origin and by the spirit of his work, was a representative of the people. This Alexey Vasilievich Koltsov(1809-1842). He spoke in the voice of a Russian peasant, and there was no artificiality, no game in this, it was his own voice, suddenly standing out from the nameless choir of Russian folk poetry.
Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century was so multifaceted.

Sentimentalism remained faithful to the ideal of a normative personality, but the condition for its implementation was not the “reasonable” reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. The hero of educational literature in sentimentalism is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him. By origin (or by conviction) the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common people is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.

The most prominent representatives of sentimentalism are James Thomson, Edward Jung, Thomas Gray, Laurence Stern (England), Jean Jacques Rousseau (France), Nikolai Karamzin (Russia).

Sentimentalism in English literature

Thomas Gray

England was the birthplace of sentimentalism. At the end of the 20s of the 18th century. James Thomson, with his poems “Winter” (1726), “Summer” (1727) and Spring, Autumn, subsequently combined into one whole and published () under the title “The Seasons,” contributed to the development of a love of nature in the English reading public by drawing simple, unpretentious rural landscapes, following step by step the various moments of the life and work of the farmer and, apparently, striving to place the peaceful, idyllic village environment above the bustle and spoiled city.

In the 40s of the same century, Thomas Gray, the author of the elegy “Rural Cemetery” (one of the most famous works of cemetery poetry), the ode “Towards Spring”, etc., like Thomson, tried to interest readers in rural life and nature, to awaken their sympathy to simple, inconspicuous people with their needs, sorrows and beliefs, while at the same time giving his creativity a thoughtful and melancholy character.

Richardson's famous novels - "Pamela" (), "Clarissa Garlo" (), "Sir Charles Grandison" () - are also of a bright and typical product of English sentimentalism. Richardson was completely insensitive to the beauties of nature and did not like to describe it, but he put psychological analysis in the first place and made the English, and then the entire European public, keenly interested in the fate of the heroes and especially the heroines of his novels.

Laurence Sterne, author of “Tristram Shandy” (-) and “A Sentimental Journey” (; after the name of this work the direction itself was called “sentimental”), combined Richardson’s sensitivity with a love of nature and a peculiar humor. Stern himself called the “sentimental journey” “a peaceful journey of the heart in search of nature and all spiritual attractions that can inspire us with more love for our neighbors and for the whole world than we usually feel.”

Sentimentalism in French literature

Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre

Having moved to the continent, English sentimentalism found somewhat prepared soil in France. Quite independently of the English representatives of this trend, Abbé Prévost (“Manon Lescaut,” “Cleveland”) and Marivaux (“Life of Marianne”) taught the French public to admire everything touching, sensitive, and somewhat melancholy.

Under the same influence, Rousseau's "Julia" or "New Heloise" was created, who always spoke of Richardson with respect and sympathy. Julia reminds many of Clarissa Garlo, Clara reminds her of her friend, miss Howe. The moralizing nature of both works also brings them closer to each other; but in Rousseau’s novel nature plays a prominent role; the shores of Lake Geneva - Vevey, Clarens, Julia’s grove - are described with remarkable art. Rousseau's example did not remain without imitation; his follower, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, in his famous work"Paul and Virginie" () transfers the scene of action to South Africa, accurately foreshadowing best essays Chateaubrean, makes his heroes a charming couple of lovers who live far from city culture, in close communication with nature, sincere, sensitive and pure in soul.

Sentimentalism in Russian literature

Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s and early 1790s thanks to translations of the novels “Werther” by J.V. Goethe, “Pamela,” “Clarissa” and “Grandison” by S. Richardson, “The New Heloise” by J.-J. Rousseau, "Paul and Virginie" by J.-A. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. The era of Russian sentimentalism was opened by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin with “Letters of a Russian Traveler” (1791–1792).

His story "Poor Liza" (1792) is a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther he inherited a general atmosphere of sensitivity, melancholy and the theme of suicide.

The works of N.M. Karamzin gave rise to a huge number of imitations; at the beginning of the 19th century appeared "Poor Liza" by A.E. Izmailov (1801), "Journey to Midday Russia" (1802), "Henrietta, or the Triumph of Deception over Weakness or Delusion" by I. Svechinsky (1802), numerous stories by G.P. Kamenev ( “The Story of Poor Marya”; “Unhappy Margarita”; “Beautiful Tatiana”), etc.

Ivan Ivanovich Dmitriev belonged to Karamzin’s group, which advocated the creation of a new poetic language and fought against archaic pompous style and outdated genres.

Sentimentalism marked the early work of Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. The publication in 1802 of a translation of Elegy written in the rural cemetery of E. Gray became a phenomenon in artistic life Russia, because he translated the poem “into the language of sentimentalism in general, translated the genre of elegy, and not the individual work of an English poet, which has its own special individual style"(E.G. Etkind). In 1809, Zhukovsky wrote a sentimental story “Maryina Roshcha” in the spirit of N.M. Karamzin.

Russian sentimentalism had exhausted itself by 1820.

It was one of the stages of the pan-European literary development, which ended the Age of Enlightenment and opened the way to romanticism.

Main features of the literature of sentimentalism

So, taking into account all of the above, we can identify several main features of Russian literature of sentimentalism: a departure from the straightforwardness of classicism, an emphasized subjectivity of the approach to the world, a cult of feeling, a cult of nature, a cult of innate moral purity, innocence, the rich spiritual world of representatives of the lower classes is affirmed. Attention is paid to the spiritual world of a person, and feelings come first, not great ideas.

In painting

Western art movement second half of the XVIII., expressing disappointment in “civilization” based on the ideals of “reason” (Enlightenment ideology). S. proclaims the feeling, solitary reflection, and simplicity of the rural life of the “little man.” J.J.Russo is considered the ideologist of S.

One of the characteristic features of Russian portrait art of this period was citizenship. The heroes of the portrait no longer live in their own closed, isolated world. The consciousness of being necessary and useful to the fatherland, caused by the patriotic upsurge in the era Patriotic War 1812, the flowering of humanistic thought, which was based on respect for the dignity of the individual, the expectation of imminent social changes restructured the worldview advanced person . The portrait of N.A., presented in the hall, is adjacent to this direction. Zubova, granddaughters A.V. Suvorov, copied by an unknown master from a portrait of I.B. Lumpy the Elder, depicting a young woman in a park, away from the conventions of social life. She looks at the viewer thoughtfully with a half-smile; everything about her is simplicity and naturalness. Sentimentalism is opposed to straightforward and overly logical reasoning about the nature of human feeling, emotional perception that directly and more reliably leads to the comprehension of the truth. Sentimentalism expanded the idea of ​​human mental life, coming closer to understanding its contradictions, the very process of human experience. At the turn of two centuries, the work of N.I. developed. Argunov, a gifted serf of the Sheremetyev counts. One of the significant trends in Argunov’s work, which was not interrupted throughout the 19th centuries, is the desire for concreteness of expression, an unpretentious approach to a person. A portrait of N.P. is presented in the hall. Sheremetyev. It was donated by the Count himself to the Rostov Spaso-Yakovlevsky Monastery, where the cathedral was built at his expense. The portrait is characterized by realistic simplicity of expression, free from embellishment and idealization. The artist avoids painting the hands and focuses on the model’s face. The coloring of the portrait is based on the expressiveness of individual spots of pure color, colorful planes. In the portrait art of this time, a type of modest chamber portrait was emerging, completely freed from any features of the external environment, demonstrative behavior of models (portrait of P.A. Babin, P.I. Mordvinov). They do not pretend to be deeply psychologistic. We are dealing only with a fairly clear recording of patterns and a calm state of mind. A separate group consists of children's portraits presented in the hall. What is captivating about them is the simplicity and clarity of the interpretation of the image. If in the 18th century children were most often depicted with the attributes of mythological heroes in the form of cupids, Apollos and Dianas, then in the 19th century artists strive to convey the direct image of a child, the warehouse of a child’s character. The portraits presented in the hall, with rare exceptions, come from noble estates. They were part of estate portrait galleries, the basis of which were family portraits. The collection was of an intimate, predominantly memorial nature and reflected the personal attachments of the models and their attitude towards their ancestors and contemporaries, the memory of whom they tried to preserve for posterity. The study of portrait galleries deepens the understanding of the era, allows you to more clearly sense the specific environment in which the works of the past lived, and understand a number of their features artistic language. Portraits provide rich material for studying the history of Russian culture.

V.L. experienced a particularly strong influence of sentimentalism. Borovikovsky, who depicted many of his models against the backdrop of an English park, with a soft, sensually vulnerable expression on his face. Borovikovsky was connected with the English tradition through the circle of N.A. Lvova - A.N. Venison. He knew well the typology of English portraiture, in particular, from the works of the German artist A. Kaufmann, fashionable in the 1780s, who was educated in England.

English landscape painters also had some influence on Russian painters, for example, such masters of idealized classicist landscape as Ya.F. Hackert, R. Wilson, T. Jones, J. Forrester, S. Dalon. In the landscapes of F.M. Matveev, the influence of “Waterfalls” and “Views of Tivoli” by J. Mora can be traced.

In Russia, the graphics of J. Flaxman (illustrations to Gormer, Aeschylus, Dante), which influenced the drawings and engravings of F. Tolstoy, and the small plastic works of Wedgwood were also popular - in 1773, the Empress made a fantastic-sized order for the British manufactory for “ Service with green frog"of 952 objects with views of Great Britain, now stored in the Hermitage.

Miniatures by G.I. were performed in English taste. Skorodumov and A.Kh. Rita; The genre “Pictorial Sketches of Russian Manners, Customs and Entertainments in One Hundred Colored Drawings” (1803-1804) performed by J. Atkinson were reproduced on porcelain.

There were fewer British artists working in Russia in the second half of the 18th century than French or Italian ones. Among them, the most famous was Richard Brompton, the court artist of George III, who worked in St. Petersburg in 1780 - 1783. He owns portraits of the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich, and Prince George of Wales, which became examples of the image of heirs at a young age. Brompton's unfinished image of Catherine against the backdrop of the fleet was embodied in the portrait of the Empress in the Temple of Minerva by D.G. Levitsky.

French by birth P.E. Falcone was a student of Reynolds and therefore represented the English school of painting. The traditional English aristocratic landscape presented in his works, dating back to Van Dyck of the English period, did not receive wide recognition in Russia.

However, Van Dyck's paintings from the Hermitage collection were often copied, which contributed to the spread of the genre of costume portraiture. The fashion for images in the English spirit became more widespread after the return from Britain of the engraver Skorodmov, who was appointed “Engraver of Her Imperial Majesty’s Cabinet” and elected Academician. Thanks to the work of the engraver J. Walker, engraved copies of paintings by J. Romini, J. Reynolds, and W. Hoare were distributed in St. Petersburg. The notes left by J. Walker talk a lot about the advantages of the English portrait, and also describe the reaction to the acquired G.A. Potemkin and Catherine II of Reynolds's paintings: "the manner of thickly applying paint ... seemed strange ... for their (Russian) taste it was too much." However, as a theorist, Reynolds was accepted in Russia; in 1790 his “Speeches” were translated into Russian, in which, in particular, the right of the portrait to belong to a number of the “highest” types of painting was substantiated and the concept of “portrait in the historical style” was introduced.

Literature

• E. Schmidt, “Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe” (Jena, 1875).
• Gasmeyer, “Richardson’s Pamela, ihre Quellen und ihr Einfluss auf die englische Litteratur” (Lpc., 1891).
• P. Stapfer, “Laurence Sterne, sa personne et ses ouvrages” (P., 18 82).
• Joseph Texte, “Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les origines du cosmopolitisme littéraire” (P., 1895).
• L. Petit de Juleville, “Histoire de la langue et de la littérature française” (Vol. VI, issue 48, 51, 54).

• “History of Russian Literature” by A. N. Pypin, (vol. IV, St. Petersburg, 1899).
• Alexey Veselovsky, “Western influence in new Russian literature” (M., 1896).
• S. T. Aksakov, “Various Works” (M., 1858; article about the merits of Prince Shakhovsky in dramatic literature).

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