What is realism in literature? It is one of the most common directions, reflecting realistic image reality. The main task this direction stands reliable disclosure of phenomena encountered in life, using a detailed description of the characters depicted and the situations that happen to them, through typification. What is important is the lack of embellishment.
Among other directions, only in realistic Special attention given to the right artistic depiction life, and not the emerging reaction to certain life events, for example, as in romanticism and classicism. The heroes of realist writers appear before readers exactly as they were presented to the author's gaze, and not as the writer would like them to be.
Realism, as one of the widespread trends in literature, settled closer to the middle of the 19th century after its predecessor - romanticism. The 19th century is subsequently designated as the era of realistic works, but romanticism did not cease to exist, it only slowed down in development, gradually turning into neo-romanticism.
Important! The definition of this term was first introduced into literary criticism by D.I. Pisarev.
The main features of this direction are as follows:
- Full compliance with the reality depicted in any work of the painting.
- True specific typification of all the details in the images of the heroes.
- The basis is a conflict situation between a person and society.
- Image in the work deep conflict situations, the drama of life.
- The author paid special attention to the description of all phenomena environment.
- A significant feature of this literary direction The writer’s significant attention to the inner world of a person, his state of mind is considered.
Main genres
In any direction of literature, including realistic, a certain system of genres develops. It was the prose genres of realism that had a particular influence on its development, due to the fact that they were more suitable than others for a more correct artistic description new realities, their reflection in literature. Works of this direction are divided into the following genres.
- A social and everyday novel that describes a way of life and a certain type of character inherent in this way of life. A good example“Anna Karenina” became a social and everyday genre.
- A socio-psychological novel, in the description of which one can see a complete detailed disclosure of the human personality, his personality and inner world.
- A realistic novel in verse is a special type of novel. A wonderful example of this genre is “”, written by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
- A realistic philosophical novel contains eternal reflections on such topics as: the meaning of human existence, confrontation between good and evil sides, a certain purpose human life. An example of a realistic philosophical novel is “”, the author of which is Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov.
- Story.
- Tale.
In Russia, its development began in the 1830s and was a consequence of the conflict situation in various spheres of society, the contradictions between higher ranks and ordinary people. Writers began to turn to current problems of its time.
Thus begins the rapid development of a new genre - the realistic novel, which, as a rule, described hard life common people, their burdens and problems.
The initial stage in the development of the realistic trend in Russian literature is the “natural school”. During " natural school» literary works in to a greater extent they sought to describe the hero’s position in society, his belonging to some kind of profession. Among all genres leading place occupied physiological essay.
In the 1850s–1900s, realism began to be called critical, since the main goal was to criticize what was happening, the relationship between a certain person and spheres of society. Issues such as: the measure of the influence of society on the life of an individual were considered; actions that can change a person and the world around him; the reason for the lack of happiness in human life.
This literary movement has become extremely popular in Russian literature, since Russian writers were able to make the world genre system richer. Works appeared from in-depth questions of philosophy and morality.
I.S. Turgenev created an ideological type of heroes, the character, personality and internal state of which directly depended on the author’s assessment of the worldview, finding certain meaning in the concepts of their philosophy. Such heroes are subject to ideas that they follow until the very end, developing them as much as possible.
In the works of L.N. Tolstoy, the system of ideas that develops during the life of a character determines the form of his interaction with the surrounding reality and depends on the morality and personal characteristics of the heroes of the work.
Founder of realism
The title of pioneer of this trend in Russian literature was rightfully awarded to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. He is the generally recognized founder of realism in Russia. “Boris Godunov” and “Eugene Onegin” are considered striking examples of realism in Russian literature of those times. Also distinguishing examples were such works by Alexander Sergeevich as “Belkin’s Tales” and “The Captain’s Daughter”.
IN creative works Pushkin gradually begins to develop classical realism. The writer’s portrayal of the personality of each character is comprehensive in an effort to describe the complexity of his inner world and state of mind, which unfold very harmoniously. Recreating the experiences of a certain person, his moral character helps Pushkin overcome the self-will of describing passions inherent in irrationalism.
Heroes A.S. Pushkin appear before readers with open sides of their being. The writer pays special attention to describing the aspects of the human inner world, depicts the hero in the process of development and formation of his personality, which are influenced by the reality of society and the environment. This was due to his awareness of the need to depict a specific historical and national identity in the characteristics of the people.
Attention! Reality in Pushkin’s depiction collects an accurate, concrete image of the details of not only the inner world of a certain character, but also the world that surrounds him, including his detailed generalization.
Neorealism in literature
New philosophical, aesthetic and everyday realities at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries contributed to a change in direction. Implemented twice, this modification acquired the name neorealism, which gained popularity during the 20th century.
Neorealism in literature consists of a variety of movements, since its representatives had different artistic approach to the image of reality, including character traits realistic direction. It is based on appeal to the traditions of classical realism XIX century, as well as to problems in the social, moral, philosophical and aesthetic spheres of reality. A good example containing all these features is the work of G.N. Vladimov “The General and His Army”, written in 1994.
Realism as a method arose in Russian literature in the first third of the 19th century. The main principle of realism is the principle of life truth, the reproduction of characters and circumstances explained socio-historically (typical characters in typical circumstances).
Realist writers deeply and truthfully depicted various aspects of contemporary reality, recreated life in the forms of life itself.
The basis of the realistic method early XIX centuries constitute positive ideals: humanism, sympathy for the humiliated and offended, the search for positive hero in life, optimism and patriotism.
By the end of the 19th century, realism reached its peak in the works of such writers as F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
The twentieth century set new tasks for realist writers and forced them to look for new ways to master life material. In the conditions of rising revolutionary sentiments, literature was increasingly imbued with forebodings and expectations of impending changes, “unheard-of rebellions.”
The sense of impending social change caused such intensity artistic life, which Russian art has never known before. Here is what L.N. Tolstoy wrote about the turn of the century: “The new century brings the end of one worldview, one faith, one way of communicating between people and the beginning of another worldview, another way of communication. M. Gorky called the 20th century the century of spiritual renewal.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the classics of Russian realism L.N. continued their search for the secrets of existence, the secrets of human existence and consciousness. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, L.N. Andreev, I.A. Bunin and others.
However, the principle of old realism was increasingly criticized by various literary communities, which demanded a more active intervention of the writer into life and influence on it.
This revision was started by L.N. Tolstoy himself, who in the last years of his life called for strengthening the didactic, instructive, preaching principles in literature.
If A.P. Chekhov believed that the “court” (i.e., the artist) is only obliged to raise questions, to focus the attention of the thinking reader on important problems, and the “jury” is obliged to answer ( public structures), then for realist writers of the early twentieth century this no longer seemed sufficient.
Thus, M. Gorky directly stated that “for some reason the luxurious mirror of Russian literature did not reflect the outbursts of popular anger ...”, and accused literature of the fact that “it did not look for heroes, it loved to talk about people who were strong only in patience, meek , soft, dreaming of paradise in heaven, silently suffering on earth.”
It was M. Gorky, a realist writer of the younger generation, who was the founder of a new literary movement, which later received the name “socialist realism.”
The literary and social activities of M. Gorky played a significant role in uniting realist writers of the new generation. In the 1890s, on the initiative of M. Gorky, a literary circle"Sreda", and then the publishing house "Znanie". Young, talented writers A.I. gather around this publishing house. Kuprii, I.A. Bunin, L.N. Andreev, A. Serafimovich, D. Bedny and others.
The debate with traditional realism was waged at different poles of literature. There were writers who followed the traditional direction, seeking to update it. But there were also those who simply rejected realism as an outdated trend.
In these difficult conditions, in the confrontation of polar methods and trends, the creativity of writers traditionally called realists continued to develop.
The originality of Russian realistic literature of the early twentieth century lies not only in the significance of the content and acute social themes, but also in artistic quests, perfection of technology, and stylistic diversity.
Realism is a movement in literature and art that truthfully and realistically depicts typical features reality, in which there are no various distortions and exaggerations. This direction followed romanticism, and was the predecessor of symbolism.
This trend originated in the 30s of the 19th century and reached its peak in the middle of it. His followers sharply denied the use of any sophisticated techniques, mystical trends or idealization of characters in literary works. The main feature of this trend in the literature is artistic display real life with the help of ordinary and familiar images to readers that are part of their everyday life (relatives, neighbors or acquaintances).
(Alexey Yakovlevich Voloskov "At the tea table")
The works of realist writers are distinguished by their life-affirming beginning, even if their plot is characterized by tragic conflict. One of the main features of this genre is the authors’ attempt to consider surrounding reality in its development, discover and describe new psychological, public and social relationships.
Having replaced romanticism, realism has the characteristic features of an art that strives to find truth and justice, wants to change the world in better side. The main characters in the works of realist authors make their discoveries and conclusions after much thought and deep introspection.
(Zhuravlev Firs Sergeevich "Before the Crown")
Critical realism develops almost simultaneously in Russia and Europe (approximately 30-40s of the 19th century) and soon emerges as leading direction in literature and art throughout the world.
In France, literary realism is primarily associated with the names of Balzac and Stendhal, in Russia with Pushkin and Gogol, in Germany with the names of Heine and Buchner. All of them experience the inevitable influence of romanticism in their literary work, but gradually move away from it, abandon the idealization of reality and move on to depicting a broader social background, where the lives of the main characters take place.
Realism in Russian literature of the 19th century
The main founder of Russian realism in the 19th century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. In his works " Captain's daughter", "Eugene Onegin", "Belkin's Tales", "Boris Godunov", " Bronze Horseman“He subtly captures and skillfully conveys the very essence of all important events in the life of Russian society, presented by his talented pen in all its diversity, colorfulness and inconsistency. Following Pushkin, many writers of that time came to the genre of realism, deepening the analysis of the emotional experiences of their heroes and depicting their complex inner world (“Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov, “The Inspector General” and “ Dead Souls"Gogol).
(Pavel Fedotov "The Picky Bride")
The tense socio-political situation in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I aroused a keen interest in the life and fate of the common people among progressive public figures that time. This is noted in later works Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, as well as in the poetic lines of Alexei Koltsov and the works of the authors of the so-called “natural school”: I.S. Turgenev (cycle of stories “Notes of a Hunter”, stories “Fathers and Sons”, “Rudin”, “Asya”), F.M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”), A.I. Herzen (“The Thieving Magpie”, “Who is to Blame?”), I.A. Goncharova (“ An ordinary story", "Oblomov"), A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, L.N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”), A.P. Chekhov (stories and plays “ The Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya").
Literary realism of the second half of the 19th century was called critical; the main task of his works was to highlight existing problems and address issues of interaction between man and the society in which he lives.
Realism in Russian literature of the 20th century
(Nikolai Petrovich Bogdanov-Belsky "Evening")
The turning point in the fate of Russian realism was the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when this direction was experiencing a crisis and a new phenomenon in culture loudly declared itself - symbolism. Then a new updated aesthetics of Russian realism arose, in which History itself and its global processes were now considered the main environment shaping a person’s personality. The realism of the early 20th century revealed the complexity of the formation of a person’s personality; it was formed under the influence not only social factors, the story itself acted as the creator of typical circumstances, under the aggressive influence of which the main character fell.
(Boris Kustodiev "Portrait of D.F. Bogoslovsky")
There are four main trends in realism of the early twentieth century:
- Critical: continues the traditions of classical realism of the mid-19th century. The works place emphasis on the social nature of phenomena (the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy);
- Socialist: displaying the historical and revolutionary development of real life, analyzing conflicts in conditions of class struggle, revealing the essence of the characters of the main characters and their actions committed for the benefit of others. (M. Gorky “Mother”, “The Life of Klim Samgin”, most works by Soviet authors).
- Mythological: display and re-interpretation of real life events through the prism of plots of famous myths and legends (L.N. Andreev “Judas Iscariot”);
- Naturalism: an extremely truthful, often unsightly, detailed depiction of reality (A.I. Kuprin “The Pit”, V.V. Veresaev “Notes of a Doctor”).
Realism in foreign literature of the 19th-20th centuries
Initial stage of formation critical realism in European countries in the mid-19th century it is associated with the works of Balzac, Stendhal, Beranger, Flaubert, and Maupassant. Merimee in France, Dickens, Thackeray, Bronte, Gaskell - England, the poetry of Heine and other revolutionary poets - Germany. In these countries, in the 30s of the 19th century, tension was growing between two irreconcilable class enemies: the bourgeoisie and the labor movement, a period of growth was observed in various spheres of bourgeois culture, and a number of discoveries were taking place in natural science and biology. In countries where a pre-revolutionary situation developed (France, Germany, Hungary), the doctrine of the scientific socialism of Marx and Engels arose and developed.
(Julien Dupre "Return from the Fields")
As a result of complex creative and theoretical polemics with the followers of romanticism, critical realists took for themselves the best progressive ideas and traditions: interesting historical topics, democracy, trends folklore, progressive critical pathos and humanistic ideals.
Realism of the early twentieth century, which survived the struggle of the best representatives of the “classics” of critical realism (Flaubert, Maupassant, France, Shaw, Rolland) with the trends of new non-realistic trends in literature and art (decadence, impressionism, naturalism, aestheticism, etc.) is acquiring new character traits. He turns to social phenomena real life, describes the social motivation of human character, reveals the psychology of personality, the fate of art. Modeling basis artistic reality philosophical ideas are laid down, the author's focus is primarily on the intellectually active perception of the work when reading it, and then on the emotional one. A classic example of an intellectual realistic novel is the works of the German writer Thomas Mann “The Magic Mountain” and “Confession of the Adventurer Felix Krull”, the dramaturgy of Bertolt Brecht.
(Robert Kohler "Strike")
In the works of realist authors of the twentieth century, the dramatic line intensifies and deepens, there is more tragedy (creativity American writer Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby", "Tender is the Night"), a special interest in the inner world of man appears. Attempts to depict the conscious and unconscious moments of a person’s life lead to the emergence of a new literary device, close to modernism called “stream of consciousness” (works by Anna Segers, W. Keppen, Yu. O’Neill). Naturalistic elements appear in the work of American realist writers such as Theodore Dreiser and John Steinbeck.
Realism of the 20th century has a bright, life-affirming color, faith in man and his strength, this is noticeable in the works of American realist writers William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Jack London, Mark Twain. The works of Romain Rolland, John Galsworthy, Bernard Shaw, and Erich Maria Remarque were very popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Realism continues to exist as a direction in modern literature and is one of the most important forms of democratic culture.
Although it is generally accepted that the art of the 20th century is the art of modernism, a significant role in literary life of the last century has a realistic direction, which on the one hand represents a realistic type of creativity. On the other hand, it comes into contact with that new direction, which has received a very conventional concept “ socialist realism”, - more precisely the literature of revolutionary and socialist ideology.
Realism of the 20th century is directly related to the realism of the previous century. And how did this one come about? artistic method V mid-19th century century, having received the rightful name of “classical realism” and having experienced various kinds of modifications in the literary work of the last third of the 19th century, it experienced the influence of such non-realistic movements as naturalism, aestheticism, and impressionism.
Realism of the 20th century develops its own specific history and has a destiny. If we cover the 20th century in total, then realistic creativity manifested itself in its diversity and multi-component nature in the first half of the 20th century. At this time, it is obvious that realism is changing under the influence of modernism and mass literature. He connects with these artistic phenomena, as with revolutionary socialist literature. In the 2nd half, realism dissolves, having lost its clear aesthetic principles and poetics of creativity in modernism and postmodernism.
Realism of the 20th century continues the traditions of classical realism in different levels– from aesthetic principles to the techniques of poetics, the traditions of which were inherent in realism of the 20th century. The realism of the last century acquires new properties that distinguish it from this type of creativity of the previous time.
Realism of the 20th century is characterized by an appeal to the social phenomena of reality and the social motivation of human character, personality psychology, and the fate of art. As is obvious, the appeal to the social pressing problems of the era, which are not separated from the problems of society and politics.
Realistic art of the 20th century, like the classical realism of Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, is different high degree generality, typification of phenomena. Realistic art tries to show the characteristic and natural in their cause-and-effect conditionality and determinism. Therefore, realism is characterized by different creative embodiments of the principle of depicting a typical character in typical circumstances, in the realism of the 20th century, which is keenly interested in individual human personality. Character is like a living person - and in this character the universal and typical has an individual refraction, or is combined with the individual properties of the personality. Along with these features of classical realism, new features are also obvious.
First of all, these are those features that manifested themselves in the realistic already in late XIX century. Literary creativity in this era it takes on a philosophical-intellectual character, when philosophical ideas underlay the modeling of artistic reality. At the same time, the manifestation of this philosophical principle is inseparable from the various properties of the intellectual. From the author’s attitude towards an intellectually active perception of the work during the reading process, then emotional perception. Folds in its specific properties intellectual novel, intellectual drama. Classic sample An intellectual realistic novel is given by Thomas Mann (“The Magic Mountain”, “Confession of the Adventurer Felix Krull”). This is also noticeable in the dramaturgy of Bertolt Brecht.
The second feature of realism in the 20th century is the strengthening and deepening of the dramatic, mostly tragic, beginning. This is obvious in the works of F.S. Fitzgerald (“Tender is the Night”, “The Great Gatsby”).
As you know, the art of the 20th century lives by its special interest not just in a person, but in his inner world. The study of this world is connected with the desire of writers to state and depict unconscious and subconscious moments. For this purpose, many writers use the technique of stream of consciousness. This can be seen in Anna Zegers' short story “Walk dead girls", the work of W. Keppen "Death in Rome", dramatic works Y. O’Neill “Love under the Elms” (the influence of the Oedipus complex).
Another feature of 20th century realism is the active use of conventional artistic forms. Especially in realistic prose of the second half of the 20th century artistic convention extremely widespread and diverse (for example, Y. Brezan “Krabat, or the Transfiguration of the World”).
Literature of revolutionary and socialist ideology. Henri Barbusse and his novel "Fire"
The realistic direction in the literature of the 20th century is closely connected with another direction - socialist realism or, more precisely, the literature of revolutionary and socialist ideology. In the literature of this direction, the first criterion is ideological (ideas of communism, socialism). In the background in literature of this level is the aesthetic and artistic. This principle is a truthful depiction of life under the influence of a certain ideological and ideological attitude of the author. The literature of revolutionary and socialist ideology in its origins is connected with the literature of revolutionary socialist and proletarian turn of XIX-XX centuries, but the pressure of class views and ideologization are more noticeable in socialist realism.
Literature of this kind is often associated with realism (the portrayal of a truthful, typical human character in typical circumstances). This direction was developed until the 70s of the 20th century in the countries of the socialist camp (Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Germany), but also in the works of writers of capitalist countries (the panoramic-epic version of Dimitar Dimov’s work “Tobacco”). In the work of socialist realism, the polarization of two worlds is noticeable - bourgeois and socialist. This is also noticeable in the image system. Indicative in this regard is the work of the writer Erwin Strittmatter (GDR), who, under the influence of the socialist realist work of Sholokhov (“Virgin Soil Upturned”), created the work “Ole Binkop.” In this novel, like Sholokhov’s, the author’s contemporary village is shown, in the depiction of which the author sought to reveal, not without drama and tragedy, the establishment of new, revolutionary socialist foundations of existence, just as Sholokhov, recognizing the importance primarily of the ideological principle, sought to depict life in its revolutionary development.
In the first half of the 20th century, socialist realism became widespread in many countries of the “capitalist world” - in France, Great Britain, and the USA. The works of this literature include “10 days that shook the world” by J. Reed, A. Gide “return to the USSR”, etc.
Just like in Soviet Russia Maxim Gorky was considered the founder of socialist realism; Henri Barbusse (life: 1873-1935) is recognized in the West. This writer, very controversial, entered literature as a poet who felt the influence of symbolist lyrics (“Mourners”). The writer whom Barbusse admired was Emile Zola, to whom Barbusse, at the end of his life, dedicated the book “Zola” (1933), which is considered by researchers as an example of Marxist literary criticism. At the turn of the century on the writer significant influence had the Dreyfus Affair. Under his influence, Barbusse affirms in his work a universal humanism in which goodness, prudence, cordial responsiveness, a sense of justice, and the ability to come to the aid of another person dying in this world operate. This position is captured in the 1914 collection of short stories, We.
In the literature of revolutionary and socialist ideology, Henri Barbusse is known as the author of the novels “Fire”, “Clarity”, the 1928 collection of stories “True Stories”, and the essayistic book “Jesus” (1927). IN last work The image of Christ is interpreted by the writer as the image of the world's first revolutionary, in the ideological certainty in which the word “revolutionary” was used in the 20-30s of the last century.
An example of a work of socialist realism in its unity with realism can be called Barbusse’s novel “Fire”. “Fire” is the first work about World War I, which opened up a new quality of conversation about this human tragedy. The novel, which appeared in 1916, largely determined the direction of development of literature about World War I. The horrors of war are described in the novel with a colossal amount of detail; his work pierced the picture of war varnished by censorship. War is not an attack similar to a parade, it is super-monstrous fatigue, waist-deep water, mud. It was written under the direct influence of the impressions that the writer made while personally at the front on the eve of the war, as well as in the first months after it began. 40-year-old Henri Barbusse volunteered to go to the front; he learned the fate of a soldier as a private. He believed that his injury (1915) saved him from death, after which Barbusse spent many months in the hospital, where he generally comprehended the war in its various manifestations, the specifics of events and facts.
One of the most important creative goals that Barbusse set for himself when creating the novel “Fire” is associated with the writer’s desire to show clearly and mercilessly what war is. Barbusse does not build his work according to tradition, highlighting certain storylines, but writes about the life of ordinary soldiers, from time to time snatching and giving close-up some characters from the mass of soldiers. Either this is the farm laborer La Mousse, or the carter Paradis. This principle of organizing a novel without highlighting the organizing plot element is noted in the subtitle of the novel “The Diary of One Platoon.” In the form of a diary entry by a certain narrator to whom the author is close, this story is built as a series of diary fragments. This form of non-traditional novel compositional solution fits into the number of various artistic quests and landmarks of 20th-century literature. At the same time, these diary entries are authentic pictures, since what is captured on the pages of this diary of the first platoon is perceived artistically and authentically. Henri Barbusse purposefully depicts in his novel the simple life of soldiers with bad weather, hunger, death, illness and rare glimpses of rest. This appeal to everyday life is connected with Barbusse’s conviction, as his narrator says in one of the entries: “war is not waving banners, not the calling voice of a horn at dawn, it is not heroism, not the courage of exploits, but diseases that torment a person, hunger, lice and death."
Barbusse turns here to naturalistic poetics, giving repulsive images, describing the corpses of soldiers who float in a stream of water among their dead comrades, unable to get out of the trench during a weeks-long downpour. Naturalistic poetics is also palpable in the writer’s use of a special kind of naturalistic comparisons: Barbusse writes about one soldier crawling out of a dugout like a bear backing away, about another scratching his hair and suffering from lice, like a monkey. Thanks to the second part of the comparison, a person is likened to an animal, but Barbusse’s naturalistic poetics is not an end in itself. Thanks to these techniques, a writer can show what war is like and evoke disgust and hostility. The humanistic beginning of Barbusse’s prose is manifested in the fact that even in these people doomed to death and misfortune he shows the ability to show humanity.
The second line of Barbusse’s creative plan is connected with the desire to show the growth of consciousness of the simple mass of soldiers. To trace the state of consciousness of the mass of soldiers, the writer turns to the technique of non-personalized dialogue, and in the structure of the work dialogue occupies so much significant place, as well as the depiction of the events of the characters’ lives in reality, and as descriptions. The peculiarity of this technique is that when fixing a replica actor, the words of the author accompanying these remarks do not indicate exactly who personally, individually, the statement belongs to (the narrator says “someone said”, “someone’s voice was heard”, “one of the soldiers shouted”, etc.).
Barbusse traces how a new consciousness of ordinary soldiers is gradually being formed, who were driven to a state of despair by the war with hunger, disease, and death. Barbusse's soldiers realize that the Boches, as they call their German enemies, are just as simple soldiers, just as unfortunate as they are, the French. Some who have realized this state this openly, in their statements marked by excitement, they declare that war is opposed to life. Some say that people are born to be husbands, fathers, children in this life, but not for the sake of death. Gradually, a frequently repeated thought arises, expressed by various characters from the mass of soldiers: after this war there should be no wars.
Barbusse's soldiers realized that this war was not being waged in their human interests, not in the interests of the country and people. The soldiers, in their understanding of this ongoing bloodshed, identify two reasons: the war is being waged solely in the interests of a select “bastard caste”, for whom the war helps fill their bags with gold. War is in the careerist interests of other representatives of this “bastard caste” with gilded shoulder straps, to whom war gives the opportunity to rise to a new step on the career ladder.
The democratic mass of Henri Barbusse, growing in their awareness of life, gradually not only feels, but also realizes the unity of all people from the simple classes, doomed to war, in their desire to resist the anti-life and anti-human war. Moreover, Barbusse’s soldiers are maturing in their international sentiments, as they realize that in this war it is not the militarism of a particular country and Germany as the one who started the war that is to blame, but world militarism, therefore simple people must, like world militarism, unite, since in this nationwide international unity they will be able to resist war. Then the desire is felt that after this war there will be no more wars in the world.
In this novel, Barbusse reveals himself as an artist who uses various artistic media to reveal the author's main idea. In connection with the depiction of the people's growth of consciousness and consciousness, the writer does not turn to a new technique of novelistic symbolism, which is manifested in the name last chapter containing climax growth of the international consciousness of soldiers. This chapter is called "Dawn". In it, Barbusse uses the technique of a symbol, which arises as a symbolic coloring of the landscape: according to the plot, it was endless rain for many months, the sky was completely covered with heavy clouds hanging to the ground, pressing on a person, and it is in this chapter, where the climax is contained, that the sky begins Clearly, the clouds are parting, and the first ray of sun timidly breaks through between them, indicating that the sun exists.
In Barbusse's novel, the realistic is organically combined with the properties of literature of revolutionary and socialist ideology, in particular this is manifested in the depiction of the growth of popular consciousness. This ideological tension, with his characteristic French humor, was played out by Romain Rolland in a review of “Fire”, which appeared in March 1917. Revealing different sides of the issue, Rolland talks about the justification of a truthful and merciless depiction of war and that, under the influence of military events, the everyday life of war, There is a change in the consciousness of the simple mass of soldiers. This change in consciousness, Rolland notes, is symbolically emphasized by the first ray of sun timidly breaking through in the landscape. Rolland declares that this ray does not yet make the difference: the certainty with which Barbusse seeks to show and depict the growth of consciousness of the soldiers is still very far away.
“Fire” is a product of its time, the era of the spread of socialist and communist ideology, their implementation in life, when there was a sacred belief in the possibility of their implementation in reality through revolutionary upheavals, change lives for the benefit of every person. In the spirit of the times, living with revolutionary socialist ideas, this novel was appreciated by its contemporaries. Barbusse's contemporary, communist-oriented writer Raymond Lefebvre called this work ("Fire") an "international epic", declaring that this is a novel that reveals the philosophy of the proletariat of war, and the language of "Fire" is the language of proletarian war.
The novel “Fire” was translated and published in Russia at the time of its release in the author’s country. It was far from the establishment of socialist realism, but the novel was perceived as a new word about life in its cruel truth and a movement towards progress. This is exactly how the leader of the world proletariat, V.I., perceived and wrote about Barbusse’s work. Lenin. In his reviews, he repeated the words of M. Gorky from the preface to the publication of the novel in Russia: “every page of his book is a blow from the iron hammer of truth on what is generally called war.”
Literature of revolutionary and socialist ideology continues to exist in socialist and capitalist countries until the end of the 80s of the 20th century. This literature in the late period of its existence (60-70s) is associated with the work of the German writer from the GDR Hermann Kant (“Assembly Hall” - a novel in retro style (70s), which also returns the reader to the events of the Second World War “ Stopover").
Of the writers of the capitalist countries of the West, the poetic and novelistic work of Louis Aragon is associated with literature of this kind (a number of novels in the series “ Real world" - historical novel "Holy Week", novel "Communists"). In English-language literature - J. Albridge (his works of socialist realism - “I Don’t Want Him to Die”, “Heroes of Desert Horizons”, the dilogy “The Diplomat”, “Son of a Foreign Land (“Prisoner of a Foreign Land”)).
V. Korolenko, those who have won a name for themselves in previous years as masters of Russian literature.
New trends in the development of realism both as a movement in the Silver Age and as a literary movement appeared in the works of M. Gorky, I. Bunin, L. Andreev, A. Kuprin and others.
The creativity of this period is characterized by a mixture of directions (realism and). Even the writer’s realistic works, to one degree or another, reflect features characteristic of romanticism (an unusual hero is a tramp, a contrast as artistic technique– “Chelkash”, “Grandfather Arkhip and Lenka”, “Malva”, etc.). However, the writer gradually moves away from the image of the tramp as a rebel, from the idealization of tramping (“Rogue” ) . In 1899, Gorky published the novel « Foma Gordeev", which shows the change of generations in a bourgeois family. A theme characteristic of European literature(“Buddenbrooks” by T. Mann). With the play, the author responds to the demands of our time - about the meaning of life, about truth and lies, about the purpose of man.
The fading of the old landowner way of life, the impoverishment of noble nests is one of the themes of the prose (“Baybaks”, “ Antonov apples", "Sukhodol"). Many of the writer’s stories are dedicated to the life of the village. And here Bunin is characterized by a sober, sharp look, which allows him not to admire the people or talk about the difficult life of the peasants. The ego is concerned with themes and problems: the disintegration of the peasant family, inertia, patriarchy, life, sometimes devoid of meaning (“Village”, “Tanka”, “Pass”, “On the Farm”).
New topics are introduced by A. Kuprin. As you know, the writer tried many professions, which is why his stories are so full of the truth of life. This is the theme of the inhumanity of the bourgeois world order (“Moloch”), the life of circus performers (“At the Circus”, “Bad Pun”), the meaningless life of army officers (“Duel”), tragic force love that is higher than the surrounding world ( « Olesya").
The cruelty and abomination of life are contrasted with beautiful human characters, the beauty of simple human feelings and relationships ( « Gambrinus", "Listrigons"). Love and social inequality revealed in a new way in the story “Garnet Bracelet” .
The theme of human transformation, manifestations in him best qualities, awareness of oneself as a person sounds in many works L. Andreeva. His early stories often called “Yuletide”, i.e. with realistic content in Andreev’s stories, a miracle of human transformation occurs ( « Bargamot and Geraska"), which enriches realism as a movement Silver Age. The simple, at first glance, plot of the story “Petka at the Dacha” (the arrival of a teenage craftsman at the dacha to his mother’s owners) partly explains the events of 1917 - the social abyss between the masters of life and those who work for them. The story “The Life of Basil of Thebes” is a rebellion against the absurdly structured human life, which dooms people to loss and suffering. The horror of war is shown in the story “Red Laughter”. The famous "Tale of the Seven Hanged Men" » allows the author not only to explore the theme of imminent death, anticipation of execution, not only to condemn judicial system, but also have a negative impact on terrorism as such, because the horror of death is not only for those who were going to be killed, but also for the one who was going to kill
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