The objective basis of international production cooperation (ICP) is the growing level of development of production forces, the degree of their breakdown into industries, production, enterprises. A powerful incentive for the development of MCP was the radical transformation of production - enterprises in the conditions of scientific and technological progress.

In production cooperation, advanced ideas and achievements in industries are combined and materialized fundamental science, research and development (R&D), production, design, management and information technologies.

Among the forms of industrial cooperation the following stand out:

supply of complete plants and equipment with subsequent payment of their cost in products to be manufactured on their basis; The supplier provides the client with a work plan, trains local personnel, provides assistance in putting the facility into operation, etc.

provision of licenses and (or) production experience, as well as knowledge, with subsequent payment of their cost by supply of products obtained using them;

contract; - this is the simplest, initial form of cooperation, in which the contractor undertakes to perform certain work in accordance with the assignment of his cooperation partner, his order and according to his technical documentation or specifications.

co-production, including research and development (R&D); provides for the exchange of components and parts followed by assembly finished products in the enterprise of one or both partners.

joint ventures; a more complex, integrated form of production cooperation. Based on the principles of joint participation of partners in capital, management, distribution of income and risks, they provide for a great interest in fulfilling their obligations.

joint projects. represents a collaboration between two or more countries to implement a project

Over the past two decades, transnational cooperation corporate structures , which, depending on the form of its existence, combines almost all of the above forms of international cooperation.

The theory of absolute and comparative advantage.

Absolute advantage– the ability of a country to produce a product or service with fewer resources compared to trading partners.

Comparative advantage– a country’s ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost compared to its trading partners.

According to the principle of comparative advantage, countries export goods in which they have a comparative advantage and import goods in which they have a comparative disadvantage.

Thus, the theory of comparative advantage showed that trade is possible and mutually beneficial even if one of the countries has lower productivity in all goods. This does not mean, however, that no one is harmed by the trade. Producers of those goods in which the countries concerned have comparative disadvantages are certainly at a disadvantage. They or should agree with more low prices on their goods under the influence of foreign competition, or leave their previous occupation. It is obvious that although trade will be beneficial for the country as a whole, such producers will not be interested in it. They will be able to benefit from trade only after changing the scope of their efforts, and this takes time, sometimes quite a long time. This naturally results in the desire of those employed in non-competitive industries to oppose free trade and advocate the establishment of trade barriers.

Opportunity Cost is the quantity of some other good that must be given up when the production of that good is increased by one unit.

Therefore, we can say that countries export those goods whose production in these countries is associated with lower opportunity costs than in others.

Heckscher–Ohlin theory. Leontief's paradox.

Significant progress in in this regard was achieved by Swedish economists Eli Heckscher (in a paper published in 1919) and his student Bertil Ohlin (in a book published in 1933). They associated differences between countries in the opportunity costs of producing the same goods with unequal security (endowment) countries by factors of production and differences between goods in the combination of factors required for the production of these goods - according to their factor intensity(factor capacity).

IN general view The so-called Heckscher-Ohlin theorem can be formulated as follows: the country has a comparative advantage in those goods in the production of whichheavily used relatively redundant Vfactor of production for a given country .

Once trade begins, a country in which the surplus factor is, for example, labor, and which therefore exports labor-intensive goods, will begin to move resources from industries producing capital- and land-intensive goods to labor-intensive industries. This will mean a relative increase in the demand for labor and a fall in the demand for capital and land. (Because labor-intensive industries by definition require more labor relative to other factors.) Accordingly, wages will rise, while either interest on capital or land rent (or both) will fall relative to wages. The result turns out to be the same as if part of the labor force were to move to other countries, thereby reducing the supply of labor, which would lead to an increase in wages. In those countries that import labor-intensive goods, there will be a reduction in the production of goods competing with imports, a fall in the demand for labor, and a reduction in wages relative to the interest on capital or land rent. The result would be the same as if there were an influx of labor into these countries, which would increase the supply of labor and cause wages to fall.

In general, we can say that as a result of trade, the incomes of the owners of those factors that are intensively used in the production of goods for which a given country has a comparative advantage increase.

Vasily Leontyev substantially completed the development of a method for analyzing the structure of the economy, called “input-output” (in the Soviet tradition - input-output balance). Within the framework of this method and the empirical estimates made on its basis of the structure of costs for the production of goods in various sectors of the American economy, it turned out to be possible to carry out the first empirical verification of the correctness of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. V. Leontiev, having data on the sectoral structure of US exports and imports, as well as on the volume of labor and capital in each industry, calculated the factor intensity of American exports and American production competing with imports.

The result, however, was unexpected: import-substituting production turned out to be 30% more capital-intensive than exports. This phenomenon is called the Leontief paradox.

Leontief's paradox- the result of an empirical assessment of the correctness of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, according to which American goods competing with imports turned out to be more capital intensive than exported goods.

Alternative theories of international trade.

According to classical theories trade (as the theory of comparative advantage and the Heckscher-Ohlin theory are usually called), one would expect that the most intense trade flows would be between countries that are most different from each other. However, in the early 1960s. Attention was drawn to the fact that an increasing share in world trade is occupied by trade between countries that are similar to each other in all essential parameters. Moreover, in trade between such countries an increasing share is occupied by trade in products of the same industries - the so-called. intra-industry trade, unlike intersectoral– trade in products from various industries. Under these conditions, a number of new concepts emerged, collectively called new theories of trade.

A) Economies of scale(R. Jones, 1968; M. Kemp, 1969).

Under economies of scale(positive economies of scale) refers to the reduction in average costs as the scale of production expands: if a proportional increase in all factors used leads to an increase in output by to a greater extent than the number of used factors has increased (for example, the use of factors increases by 2 times, the volume of output increases by 3). Suppose there are a number of industries in which the benefits of economies of scale cannot be fully exploited as a result of a limited domestic market (or for other reasons). Then the specialization of individual countries in the production of only one of the goods and trade between countries will lead to significant gains for them.

Economies of scale can (and do) make trade profitable even between countries that are no different from each other in the respects of interest to us.

B) Trade based on product differentiation(P. Krugman, 1979).

Modern production is characterized mainly by the production of differentiated rather than homogeneous products. Product differentiation reflects the diversity of consumer tastes: some prefer Orbit, while others prefer Dirol or Stimorol. Some people like BMW, others like Volkswagen. Therefore, it is advisable for the country to limit itself to a relatively small number of models produced, importing other versions of similar products. The consumer gains from such trade will be increased choice and lower prices as a result of economies of scale.

C) Technology gap and product life cycle model.

The concept of the technology gap, developed by the American economist M. Posner in 1961, suggests that a significant part of trade between developed countries is based on the introduction of new products and technological processes. Manufacturers of the country in which the corresponding innovations are carried out for the first time become monopolists in the world market for some time. During this period, such producers find themselves in a very advantageous position.

Assessing the theories of trade presented in this section, it should be noted that:

none of the theories claims to be an exhaustive explanation of the structure of international trade;

the predominant part of trade between countries with significantly different levels economic development- this is interindustry trade based on differences in the endowment of production factors and is well explained by classical theories of trade;

Trade between industrialized countries is increasingly taking on the character of intra-industry trade, based on economies of scale and product differentiation. This part of trade is well explained by the new theories of trade;

Thus, classical and new theories of trade should not be assessed as mutually exclusive, but complementary.

The objective basis of international production cooperation (ICP) is the growing level of development of production forces, the degree of their breakdown into industries, productions, and enterprises. A powerful stimulus for the development of MCP was the radical transformation in the conditions of scientific and technological progress of the primary cell of production - the enterprise, from which individual stages are actively “spun off” technological process, the release of the components of the final product is highlighted.

World experience shows that cooperation between labor and production is an objective historical process, which is inherent in all methods of production, in countries with any socio-economic system. In production cooperation, advanced ideas and achievements in the fields of fundamental science, research and development (R&D), production, design, management and information technologies are combined and materialized.

Cooperation in modern world becomes the reproductive base of socio-economic and scientific-technical progress of the countries of the world, the core of world economic processes, regional economic integration, transnationalization (production, R&D, information and financial sphere, etc.), international industrial cooperation, globalization of the world economy. This form of interaction between global economic entities has become an accelerator for the structural restructuring of industry, its sectoral and interdepartmental complexes on a new technological basis, including the widespread use of electronic and information technologies.

In the economic literature, the term “production cooperation” in international cooperation is used both in a narrow sense, which means cooperation exclusively in production activities, and in broad meaning, including various areas economic activity enterprises: scientific research, logistics, production process, product sales, enterprise management.

In the glossary of terms published by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in 1983, industrial cooperation (the term “industrial cooperation” is equivalent to the term “industrial cooperation” in its broad sense) is defined as “relations between enterprises of different countries based on long-term community of interests." Industrial cooperation may include the provision of licenses, establishment of factories or production lines; development of new types of technologies and provision of information related to these types of technologies; production, marketing, joint projects or joint bids.

Most foreign economists believe that the most important features of international industrial cooperation are the long-term (repeated) nature of economic relations, their direct focus on the production of material goods, joint or technological related activities in order to save costs, improve production, increase labor productivity, product quality and production efficiency. At the same time, cooperative cooperation extends both to production itself and to activities preceding the production process or related to it in another way, for example, to the sale of finished products.

In the entire community of cooperative ties, scientific and technical cooperation between economic entities of different countries can be considered as part of international production cooperation. In the case when cooperative ties in research activities extend further to the sphere of production or, conversely, cooperation in the sphere of production entails cooperation between partners in the field of industrial developments related to the improvement of manufactured products, we are dealing with production and technical cooperation.

When partners in production and technical cooperation agree on the general marketing of manufactured products, such cooperation takes the form of scientific, production and marketing. Cooperation in this form reflects integrated approach to solving problems of scientific and technological development, in which all stages of social production from scientific research to the sale of products on the world market must be linked into one system.

In accordance with the UNECE concept, the following forms of industrial cooperation are distinguished:

supply of complete plants and equipment with subsequent payment of their cost in products to be manufactured on their basis; provision of licenses and (or) production experience, as well as knowledge, with subsequent payment of their cost by supply of products obtained using them; contract; co-production, including research and development (R&D); joint ventures;

joint projects.

The supply of complete enterprises and equipment with subsequent payment of their cost, products made on their basis or raw materials that will be extracted is a special form of industrial cooperation. It is also called cooperative cooperation on a compensation basis or simply “compensation agreements.” In addition to the supply of machinery, equipment, technological lines and their installation, it also includes related services provided by the supplier and the price of which is usually included in the cost of the agreement. The supplier provides the client with a work plan, trains local personnel, provides assistance in putting the facility into operation, etc. Cooperation often extends to the exchange of technical documentation and information, joint research into product improvements, production processes, and joint marketing.

Close in nature to the first form of cooperative cooperation is the provision of licenses, production experience and knowledge with the subsequent payment of their cost by supplies of products obtained using them. This form of cooperation can only conditionally be considered a form of cooperation, since in in this case the establishment of direct permanent production or scientific and technical ties between partners is not guaranteed. Such compensation agreements develop into cooperation agreements, provided that joint production is established.

A contract is the simplest, initial form of cooperation in which the contractor undertakes to perform certain work in accordance with the assignment of his cooperation partner, his order and according to his technical documentation or specifications. A common feature agreements of this type of cooperation is short term and actions - most of them involve short-term obligations that are renewed annually. In general, cooperative cooperation based on simple contractual relations should be considered as a transitional stage to more complex forms of cooperation, for example, such as joint production.

Joint production involves the exchange of components and parts with the subsequent assembly of finished products at the enterprise of one or both partners. A prerequisite for the successful implementation of this form of cooperation is the solution of issues of standardization, unification and typification of individual parts and assemblies, and final products. It is accompanied, as a rule, by a large volume of mutual supplies and leads to greater interdependence and greater interconnection between partners. Joint production involves the supply by each partner of a certain number of units, parts and other components for the manufacture of the final product at the enterprise of one or both partners. This also includes the development technical specifications for the specified components, distribution of their production between partners, establishing the volume and specifics of production. Often such cooperation extends to general R&D. In this case, there may be a transfer of developed technology to both parties and cooperation must be strictly balanced. Joint production based on specialization, compared to cooperative cooperation based on the distribution of programs, makes it possible to more fully use capacities, increase the competitiveness of products, and reduce production costs. International practice shows that reaching agreements with high degree specialization of partners is a complex and long-term process that requires a clear definition of the responsibilities of the parties, coordination of prices, technical standards, delivery times for raw materials, quality control procedures for components and final products, procedures for resolving discrepancies, as well as effective coordination of actions.

Joint ventures (JVs) are more complex, complex form production cooperation. Based on the principles of joint participation of partners in capital, management, distribution of income and risks, they provide for a great interest in fulfilling their obligations. Joint ventures concentrate the advantages and benefits of all forms of cooperation (increasing the technical level of products and their competitiveness, releasing products in a shorter time frame at lower production costs, accelerating the innovation cycle, penetrating the markets of other countries with expanding export sales to them).

Cooperative cooperation in the form of joint projects is the cooperation of two or more countries to implement a project (bilateral or multilateral, respectively) both in the interests of the countries where cooperation partners are based, and for its implementation on the order of any other country.

Over the past two decades, transnational cooperation of corporate structures has become widespread in the world, which, depending on the form of its existence, combines almost all of the above forms of international cooperation. Appearance and distribution in the world organizational structures in the form of transnational companies (TNCs) is caused by complications and interconnections of economic processes, increased inter-firm and interstate competition for markets and sources of raw materials. TNCs, as a rule, mean long-term voluntary cooperation based on a contract (agreement) between legally and economically independent enterprises, which are located in different countries ah, to achieve a common goal through conscious coordinated behavior of partners, the number of which is not limited. The forms of such entrepreneurial cooperation are, first of all, determined by: the relatedness of the production activities of enterprises and the technological processes that are carried out on them, the presence or absence of a mechanism of joint-stock co-founding. In the presence of the latter, the phenomenon of a transnational financial-industrial corporation arises, and many developed corporate structures are associations of a financial-industrial nature.

The importance of developing international cooperation is explained, first of all, by the constant trend of increasing capital intensity of new products, which requires huge financial resources. International cooperation production makes it possible to significantly reduce the preparation time for the production of new goods and reduce their capital intensity. According to the UNECE, interstate agreements on technical cooperation and the exchange of components and parts on the basis of cooperation, on average, reduce the preparation time for the production of new products by approximately 14 - 20 months compared to organizing it exclusively on our own, and also reduce the cost by 50 - 70% development of new production. This is due to the fact that international cooperation expands the possibilities for complex, long-term and mobile use of various production resources. At the same time, savings also arise due to new technical foreign developments. In addition, cooperation makes it possible to achieve over 90% of the quality level of a foreign partner’s products, while mastering foreign technology on one’s own can provide only 70–80% of this indicator.

Export, as you know, is one of the priorities economic strategy Republic of Belarus. In this regard, one of the reserves for increasing Belarusian exports is concentrated within the framework of international industrial complexes. Practice shows that in modern conditions An important form of involving Belarusian enterprises in cooperative relations is the creation of specialized financial and industrial groups (FIGs), in particular, with the Russian side. We are talking, for example, about the FIG “Aerospace Equipment” and the FIG “Defense Systems”.

The agreement on the creation of the FIG “Defense Systems”, signed at the end of 2000, provides for the participation in it from the Belarusian side of the Minsk Wheel Tractor Plant, the Borisov Instrument-Making Plant, the aircraft repair enterprise of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus (Baranovichi), NPO Integral, JSCB Minskcomplexbank and a number of other enterprises. Within the framework of the financial industrial group, they carry out investment projects, meeting the interests of Belarusian enterprises. To maintain the high export potential of their products, its participants intend to accumulate the best national scientific and technical achievements.

Thus, Belarus is implementing economic policy, based on the principles of externally oriented development. In other words, integration into world economy is ensured, in particular, through the comprehensive development of forms international division labor on the basis of large-scale and effective cooperation with other countries.

The progressive development of the productive forces of society and scientific and technological progress diversify the economic ties of national economies and determine the growing interdependence between the subjects of the world economy, i.e. globalization of the world market space, which will be discussed in the next topic.

International production cooperation represents production ties between various enterprises located in different countries that arise in the manufacture of a particular product.

The main features of international production cooperation:

• preliminary agreement between the parties in a contractual manner of conditions joint activities and its coordination;
• the presence of firms from different countries as direct subjects of production cooperation;
• consolidation in a contractual manner as the main objects of cooperation of finished products, components, other partial products and corresponding technology;
• distribution of tasks among partners within the framework of an agreed program, assigning production specialization to them, based on the main goals of cooperation agreements;
• long-term, stability and regularity of economic relations between partners.

The classification of international production cooperation in accordance with its main features is as follows.

By type - economic cooperation, industrial cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation in the field of design and construction of industrial facilities, cooperation in the field of sales, etc.

By the way, as it develops, international production cooperation acquires a complex character and develops into international industrial cooperation, which is broader than production cooperation. It includes diverse forms of activity in the field of production, applied science, technology, trade, maintenance and in other areas. Complexity is the most important feature of international industrial cooperation.

By stages - pre-production, production and commercial cooperation.

According to the methods used - implementation of joint programs, contractual specialization, contract cooperation.

For example, the essence of contractual specialization is as follows: participants in such an agreement delimit production programs in order to eliminate or reduce duplication of production, and, therefore, competition among themselves in the market. Contractual specialization is typical for cooperation between participants in the production of complex technical products that require joint research and development.

Contract cooperation means that one of the countries (customer) entrusts another (contractor) with performing certain work in accordance with predetermined requirements regarding timing, volume, quality of performance, etc.

The implementation of joint programs also occurs when creating joint ventures, when under a single organizational form the capital of several participants is combined to achieve separate, jointly agreed goals.

According to the structure of connections, international production cooperation can be intra- and inter-company, intra- and inter-industry, horizontal, vertical and mixed.

By territorial scope - between two or more countries, within a region, interregional and worldwide.

By the number of subjects (parties) - bilateral and multilateral.

By the number of objects - single- and multi-subject.

Participants are driven to participate in the international division of labor by the desire to obtain economic benefits.

According to UN experts, international agreements on technical cooperation and the exchange of components and parts on the basis of cooperation, on average, reduce the time required to set up the production of new types of products by about 14-20 months compared to organizing it exclusively on our own, and also reduce it by 50-70%. cost of production development. In addition, cooperation makes it possible to exceed 90% of the quality level of a foreign partner’s products, while mastering foreign technology on one’s own can provide only 70-80% of this indicator.

International economic relations: lecture notes Ronshina Natalia Ivanovna

Lecture No. 5. International cooperation in production

1. TNCs, the role and areas of activity of TNCs in the modern world economy

International corporations- These are large associations of companies and firms that operate not only within the country, but also abroad. The first of them appeared in the second half of the 19th century. and were associated with activities in the field of mining and marketing of mineral raw materials. In the second half of the 20th century. The scope of their activities is expanding, and they are already operating on a global scale.

Their emergence is associated with the development of division of labor and cooperation. The specialization of an enterprise helps to increase the scale of production, and this is typical for any economic entity.

After an enterprise has increased production within its country, it expands beyond its borders. At this stage, international production formations appear. Enterprises strive to get as much as possible more income and enter the world market.

International corporations are usually divided into three groups: transnational corporations(MNCs), multinational corporations (MNCs) and international corporate alliances.

Multinational corporations- These are production associations of international firms, and these firms belong to owners from different countries. National companies unite on the basis of technology and scientific developments. Examples of such corporations include Univeler, Fiat-Citroen, etc.

International corporate unions are most often consortia in their organizational form. These are associations of concerns to solve certain economic problems.

Transnational corporations- these are companies that are controlled, as a rule, by shareholders of one country. But they also carry out their activities in other countries through the creation of branches and their subsidiaries, which have their own sales services, production, etc. Vivid examples TNCs are such American companies as Ford, General Motors, the Swiss Nestlé, etc.

In order for an international company to be considered a TNC, it is necessary that the shares of foreign employees, foreign assets and foreign sales do not exceed 25–30%.

A TNC consists of a parent corporation and subsidiaries. The parent company forms a development strategy, exercises control over finance and technology, and participates in management subsidiaries through participation in their capital. It also makes decisions about the purchase, establishment or liquidation of its divisions.

TNCs do not operate in all industries. The majority of transnational corporations are in the oil industry, chemical industry, automotive and electronics. This is explained by the fact that it is easier and more profitable to create international production associations in these areas.

TNCs have a number of advantages compared to other participants in international economic relations. First of all, this is a large territory in which they operate. Having its branches in foreign countries, they trade their goods without paying customs duties. Thanks to this, they use resources from other countries. It's not only natural resources, but also human and scientific and technical potential. In addition, they can benefit from the socio-economic level of development of the country: after all, if in a given country the level of wages is low, then it is not necessary to pay workers the same as they are paid, for example, in the country where the parent corporation is located; and if raw material prices are low, production costs are reduced. In any case, when making any decisions regarding the activities of TNCs, the specifics of the country in which the branch is located are taken into account.

In addition, multinational corporations take advantage of opportunities to avoid paying customs duties when importing goods into the country that were produced by subsidiaries abroad.

Within international corporations, when exchanging goods, so-called intra-company transfer prices are used. Their level is significantly lower than in regular trading, and according to some data, the difference between them is 3–4 times. Thanks to this instrument, it becomes possible to finance some divisions of TNCs using others, and at the same time, the amount on which taxes must be paid is significantly reduced. Currently, a significant part of the funds passes through such channels of international intra-company turnover.

Thus, transnational corporations widely take advantage of international cooperation and division of labor. They operate far beyond the borders of their “native” country and, by forming interethnic complexes, have significant influence not only on the economies of individual countries, but also on the state of world trade as a whole.

From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary(TO) author Brockhaus F.A.

From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia(KO) of the author TSB

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (ME) by the author TSB

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (OP) by the author TSB

From the book International Economic Relations: Lecture Notes author Ronshina Natalia Ivanovna

From the book General Construction finishing work: A practical guide for the builder author Kostenko E. M.

From the book Understanding Processes author Tevosyan Mikhail

From the author's book

From the author's book

From the author's book

From the author's book

From the author's book

From the author's book

Lecture No. 6. International labor migration 1. Historical background, causes and main centers of migration Migration is the movement of people from the territory of one country to another. This movement of people has always been typical. This was related to

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Lecture No. 7. International regional economic integration 1. Objective foundations and essence of regional economic integration On modern stage development, the dependence of the economies of different countries on each other is increasing, national economies

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Chapter 1 Basics construction production and production of finishing

The basis of international cooperation in production (ICP) is the growing level of development of production forces, the degree of their division into industries, production, and enterprises. In a short period of time, the primary production unit - the enterprise - was transformed. This affected all aspects of the social and international division of labor. From the composition of the enterprises, individual stages of the technological process were separated, the components of the final product were released and it was transferred to “private” enterprises, which served as a new leap in the division of labor in industry. This was the beginning of the development of cooperative processes.

The nature of the interaction between the general, private and individual division of labor has changed. A single division of labor causes profound qualitative changes in the entire social division of labor both within countries and between them. Transformed into a private division of labor, the individual division powerfully stimulates the development of the enterprise.

Under the influence of this process, entire industries and sub-sectors are created with detailed and technological specialization, the cooperation of which with other sectors of social production is an integral feature and condition of their production activities.

Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the material basis was created for the widespread development of industrial cooperation. The scientific and technological revolution also changed the very nature of the ICP by including science as an essential element.

The main function of labor cooperation - to serve as a means of increasing production material wealth with higher labor productivity - was supplemented by another function - the implementation of fundamentally new tasks that are difficult or impossible to solve without combining the efforts of producers from several countries.

The main features of the MCP are:

• 1. Preliminary agreement by the parties in a contractual manner on the terms of joint activities;
• 2. Coordination of economic activities of partner enterprises from different countries in a certain, mutually agreed area of ​​this activity;
• 3. Presence as direct subjects of industrial cooperation industrial enterprises(firms) from different countries;
• 4. Contractual consolidation of finished products, components and relevant technology as the main objects of cooperation;
• 5. Distribution of tasks among partners within the framework of an agreed program, assigning to them production specialization, based on the main goals of cooperation agreements;
• 6. Direct connection between mutual or homogeneous supplies of goods carried out by partners with the implementation of production programs within the framework of cooperation.

Joint activities require cooperation participants to maintain rhythm and synchronization of the production of partial and final products in agreed volumes and assortment, the required quality and within a certain time frame.

As the ICP develops, involves related processes into its orbit, and acquires a more comprehensive nature, it is called international industrial cooperation. It is broader in scope than the cooperation of production in industry; it includes diverse forms of activity in the field of production, applied science, technology, trade, technical services and other areas. Complexity is the most important feature of international industrial cooperation.

Classification of MCP in accordance with its main features:

• 1. By type: economic cooperation, industrial cooperation, production cooperation, scientific and technical, in the field of design and construction of facilities, in the household sphere, cooperative cooperation in other areas of economic activity;
• 2. By stages: pre-production, production, commercial;
• 3. According to the methods used: implementation of joint programs, contractual specialization, creation of joint ventures;
• 4. According to the structure of connections: intra- and inter-firm, intra- and inter-industry, horizontal, vertical and mixed;
• 5. By territorial scope: between two or more countries, within a region, interregional and worldwide;
• 6. By the number of subjects (parties): bi- and multilateral;
• 7. By the number of objects: single- and multi-subject.

The theory and practice of cooperative activities at any level distinguishes:

• 1. object of cooperation - the area of ​​activity in which it is carried out;
• 2. method of cooperation - organizational forms and means;
• 3. The normative apparatus, with the help of which the participants in the cooperation achieve their jointly set goals.

Cooperation, as a certain system of relations, should be classified based on taking into account two determinants - the area and method of cooperation.

The main methods used to establish cooperative ties:

1. Implementation of joint programs - ICT manifests itself in two main forms: contract cooperation and joint production. Contract cooperation is the oldest type of production relations in industry, which consists in the fact that one of the parties to the agreement entrusts the other with performing certain work in accordance with predetermined requirements for its implementation regarding timing, volume, quality of performance, etc.

Contract cooperation has two types: classic contract for the manufacture of products and contract for the design and production of a new product.

• 2. Contractual specialization - consists of delimiting the production programs of participants in this type of agreement. In accordance with the agreement, the contracting parties seek to eliminate or reduce duplication of production, as well as direct competition among themselves in the market. The most important condition, which gives this type of agreement a cooperative character is the presence of provisions on close cooperation between participants in the form of joint production of complex products, mutual or homogeneous subcontracting supplies, joint research and development, etc.
• 3. The creation of production joint ventures is one of the main methods of cooperative activity, which is becoming more widespread in the world, otherwise called integrated cooperation, when the capital of several participants is combined under a single organizational form to achieve separate, jointly agreed upon goals.