Submitting your good work to the knowledge base is easy. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE CHELYABINSK REGION
State budgetary educational institution
higher education
"South Ural State Institute of Arts named after. P.I. Tchaikovsky"
GBOU HE SUSURGIA im. P.I. Tchaikovsky
Part-time study
TEST
in the discipline Dramaturgy
topic Fundamentals of Drama
Introduction
Drama theory is one of the oldest sciences related to the problems of artistic creativity. IN ancient period of its existence it acted as a philosophy of art.
Drama theory deals with dramaturgy in its relation to theatrical and literary processes. Therefore, it includes the study of the ideological and artistic unity of theatrical and dramatic facts.
Drama theory explores:
· something that is a product of creativity (work)
· what is the result of the development of this branch of spiritual production.
Drama theory explores the patterns that determine the dramatic text, and the patterns that determine the specifics of the theatrical process.
The task of drama theory, firstly, is to be able to polish, creatively born work; secondly, to evaluate and appreciate works of art, the skill with which it is made; thirdly, develop the skills of independent, independent thinking.
1. Dramaturgy as a type of literature
comedy genre tragedy conflict
In the course of the development of literature, three main ways of reflecting life gradually emerged: epic, lyrical and dramatic, or three types of literature: epic, lyric and drama.
Epic - the term comes from the Greek epos - “word” and has two meanings: 1) these are folk poems and fairy tales; 2) a type of literature based on a special form of depicting life.
Lyrics - the term comes from the Latin and Greek - lyrikos - name musical instrument- a lyre, to the accompaniment of which lyric poems were originally sung. The lyrical image provides a direct revelation of the inner world on behalf of the author.
Drama - The term comes from the Greek word drao, which means “to act.” A dramatic reproduction of life combines the display of external events and facts and the disclosure of the inner world of characters without authorial mediation.
Unlike epic and lyric poetry, which have only linguistic means of creating images, drama also has the means that the stage gives the writer. Full and complete disclosure of images dramatic work associated with its stage incarnation.
The main difference between a dramatic work is the absence of speech by the narrator. The revelation of characters and the development of action are given in drama in dialogue, through feelings, thoughts, actions, experiences of characters and the development of relationships between us.
The main feature that distinguishes the portrayal of a person in a drama is the depiction of a person in a state of special tension and the rise of all his internal forces, caused by the need for an intense struggle with obstacles that stand in the way of the goal. The depiction of such a state and the life situations that cause it receives special clarity and prominence precisely in drama; they are usually called dramatic. Hence the term dramatism, which has been established as a designation of a special tension in a person’s internal forces.
The state in which a person is depicted in drama is indicated with particular clarity in actions, thoughts, and experiences. Distinguished by less versatility in the depiction of human life than in epic, reducing its depiction to showing only those sides that directly lead to the intensive implementation of a given conflict, drama differs from epic in its sharper definiteness in the depiction of character.
But, if in an epic all of the listed features of the image of a person can be described, then in a drama, devoid of the narrator’s speech, the way of showing human passions is action.
Drama, like epic, depicts historical and contemporary events occurring in a particular social community. But the subject of dramaturgy is always specified. The playwright reflects in his work those aspects of life in which he sees the most acute manifestations of life's contradictions, the most acute social and psychological conflicts.
The peculiarity of dramaturgy is the realism of the image, which is based on the realism of human relationships. Fantastic and fairy-tale plots and characters, the conventions of scenery and stage time will be understandable and interesting if they are based on real human relationships, a real human situation. The drama convinces the viewer by empathizing with the characters, and one can only empathize with what is recognizable, what evokes empathy, and which has analogies to life situations familiar to the viewer. Therefore, recognizability, and therefore the reality of human relationships in a work of drama, is a mandatory requirement of drama.
For drama, modernity is required, which is not equal to chronological, calendar modernity. Modernity in drama is the modernity of the problems.
2. Tragedy as a genre of drama
Tragedy - has always explored life and struggle human spirit with the surrounding world and the fateful circumstances of fate. The tragedy was called high genre, and it was intended for aristocrats, not common people.
Tragedy involves a majestic action of a sad or terrible nature. The tragedy shows the greatness of human suffering in the name of high goals, the sublimity of a noble act that requires great sacrifices from a person. Therefore, only people of great moral strength and heroic soul can be positive heroes of a tragedy.
The initial content of tragedy is resistance to fate, its destructive and inevitable destiny, which neither mortals nor gods can avoid. The second is an image of the conflict of an individual protesting against the violence of the contemporary state against human feelings.
In ancient and Christian tragedies we often see the direct intervention of a deity or deities. Rock reveals its face in the appearance of shadows, fantastic creatures, in visions and miracles, in supernatural natural phenomena.
1. The maximum strength of the personality depicted in the tragedy.
The ancients called the tragic hero a term that means a certain spiritual maximum.
The exceptional strength of the tragedy hero is manifested in the fact that he overcomes the obstacles of an exceptional personality.
2. The fatality of the individual’s aspirations.
Tragedy, as Aristotle pointed out, depicts a disastrous mistake; This is where it differs from heroic drama. The hero of the tragedy is mistaken, he is guilty without guilt.
The tragic hero acts without evil intention and “tragic guilt” - opposition to fate, God, society, state, historical necessity - is associated with conscientious error.
3. Thoughtful, ideologically rich dialogue.
The artistic essence of the tragedy is formed by almost continuous vivid rhetoric and heated discussion. The frantic pressure that distinguishes the heroes of the tragedy is manifested not only in energetic actions, but also in intellectual and rhetorical ingenuity. Decisive actions alternate with irresistible eloquence. In tragedy, the effective meaning of the dramatic word appears with particular clarity.
4. Deviation from everyday and historical reality.
In processing historical material, tragedy, striving for maximum energy, discarded many details and sharply concentrated events, sometimes treating historical facts quite freely.
3. Comedy as a genre of drama
Comedy - no less ancient genre which originated in folk culture. Deciding the most difficult questions for the physical survival of himself and his family, a simple person had to have some kind of outlet to switch his consciousness, to relax. The scenes that were performed in squares and booths were funny in their situations and familiar to ordinary spectators. Through comedy, a simple person seemed to look at himself from the outside, and, laughing, confirmed with his soul that life is not so terrible and there is hope for the best in it.
In the structure of ancient comedy of its classical period, those features of the genre are clearly expressed, which in the future invariably are the main thing in all its best examples, created in different eras.
Aristophanes' comedies consisted of several parts:
· the prologue began the comedy, putting forward main topic, determining the content of the heroes’ struggle;
· the parade followed the prologue and staged the very argument of the heroes;
· agon - the main part of the comedy, consists of a number of scenes built around the heroes’ dispute over topical issues political topics;
· escod is the general conclusion of a comedy and often provided sharply contrasting results of an argument for positive and negative characters.
The comedies of Aristophanes depict man in his social, political life, show social struggle political parties, conflicts of social life.
The development of comedy, like other dramatic genres, continued throughout the centuries of the existence of this genre.
In most cases, the viewer of a comedy is placed by the playwright in a position “above” the events and characters, thanks to which he gets the opportunity to perceive terrible things as comic. The author strives to make us look at the world of his play, the author, with ironic eyes.
Russian classical comedy is extremely diverse in themes and artistic features. At the center of Russian classical comedy there is often a positive hero, alone trying to fight the “ulcers” of society. Some comedies have no positive hero. The authors of these comedies stigmatize vices, leaving the viewer to draw conclusions and look for the antidote themselves.
We can give the following definition of comedy: comedy is a dramatic depiction of a conflict caused by some aspiration harmful to society that generates laughter.
4. Composition of a dramatic work
Composition (lat.compositio-composition, connection) - this concept is relevant for all types of arts. It is understood as the relationship between the parts of a work of art. Dramatic composition can be defined as the way in which a dramatic work is organized, as the organization of action in space and time.
The subject of the depiction in a dramatic work is social conflict.
The history of drama shows that to create a holistic artistic image conflict event, to comply with a simple condition, to show not only the beginning of the conflict, but also its development and result, is not easy. The difficulty lies in finding the only correct dramatic development, and then the completion of the initial situation.
Mainly because of the compositional complexity of creating a dramatic work, a fair belief arose that drama is the most complex type of literature.
In order to cope with compositional difficulties, the playwright needs to have a good understanding of his artistic task and know the basic elements of dramaturgy. Of course, no work of art is written according to a predetermined pattern. The more original this essay, the better it will be.
Since without the basic elements of dramatic composition - the image of the beginning of the struggle, the course of the struggle and the result of the struggle - it is impossible to create complete image conflict event - their presence and the named sequence of arrangement in a dramatic work are necessary, in the full sense of the word, elementary artistic requirement dramatic art
5. Dramatic conflict
Dramatic work as a type fiction depicts an action, or more precisely, depicts conflicts, that is, actions that lead to confrontation, counteraction.
Conflict - from lat. conflictus - collision.
The causes of the conflict lie in the character’s worldview, his inner world, while social reasons must also be taken into account.
Speaking about dramatic conflict, it is necessary to especially note its artistic nature. The conflict generalizes and typifies the contradiction that the playwright observes in life. The depiction of a conflict in a dramatic work is a way of revealing one or another social contradiction on specific example struggle.
Thus, the conflict in the play has two sides:
1. objective - by origin, reflecting the social conflict objectively existing in society;
2. subjective, reflected in the behavior and characters of the heroes.
Initially, the conflict exists before the events presented in the play. Then some event occurs that upsets the existing balance, and the conflict unfolds, taking on a visible form. From this moment the play begins. All further actions comes down to the establishment of a new equilibrium as a consequence of the victory of one conflicting party over the other. The conflict is resolved, traditionally, at the end of the play. But there are a number of plays in which we can observe the unresolved nature of the main conflict. This is precisely the main idea of such plays.
6. The hero as a creator of conflict
Social conflicts depicted in dramatic works are many and varied. However, the methods of compositionally building a dramatic conflict are typical. We can talk about a typology of structure dramatic conflict, about the three main types of its construction.
The hero is the audience; satirical works are usually based on such a conflict. The audience denies behavior and morality with laughter satirical heroes acting on stage.
The hero is the environment that he opposes. In this case, the author and the audience are, as it were, in a third position, observing both the hero and the environment, following the vicissitudes of this struggle, without necessarily joining one or the other of the opposite sides.
The division of dramatic conflicts according to the type of their construction is not absolute. In many works one can observe a combination of two types of conflict construction. So, for example, if in a satirical play, along with negative characters, there are also positive heroes, in addition to the main conflict Hero - Auditorium, we will also observe another conflict Hero - Hero, a conflict between positive and negative heroes on stage.
7. Action in a dramatic work
In dramaturgy, action is viewed as the development of events. In accordance with this, it is possible to classify actions according to external and internal parameters. Especially often the action along the external line develops in detective stories and sitcoms. If in a dramatic work serious problems arise behind simple or ordinary situations, if changes occur not so much in the situational position of the characters, but in their psychology, characters and worldview, which is included in the concept of the plot of the play, the action can be classified as internal. However, the division into external and internal actions is quite arbitrary; these are two sides of the same coin, and they cannot exist in isolation.
8. Ideological and thematic analysis of a dramatic work
Ideological and thematic analysis identifies the main meaning in a work under the concepts of theme and idea.
The theme should be understood as a certain life material (environment) and a certain image object.
When comprehending the problem, the author poses questions to which he would like to find an answer, which concern him most, which, in his opinion, lie at the heart of the problem. Having selected the most interesting questions, the author gradually formulates for himself what he would like to talk about in his work. This is how the theme appears.
However, in a dramatic work there are several themes - the main theme and secondary themes. The main theme of the drama is its unified action; side themes are the aspirations of the characters, one way or another influencing the development of this conflict.
If we proceed from the fact that the theme is what the writer depicts, and the idea is what he wants to say about the depicted, his assessment, then the theme and idea represent two facets of the playwright’s unified approach to reality. An idea cannot be developed without a topic, and a topic cannot appear without an idea. We can say that a dramatic work has an ideological and thematic basis, that is, it shows a certain side of life, ideologically comprehended by the playwright.
An idea is what the author wanted to tell his readers, viewers, listeners, what attitude towards this or that social phenomena and events he wants to instill in them, what he wants to encourage them to do, what to call them to, or - from what actions or beliefs he wants to warn them, turn them away.
The idea is subjective. It belongs to this author. The idea, therefore, is what the work was written for.
An idea can be expressed in the formulation of a number of problems, and the solution to these problems will depend on time, which will bring clarity to them, or on readers, viewers who will be able to interpret the work they read or saw.
9. Hero in a dramatic work
The hero of a dramatic work is always a son of his time, and from this point of view, the choice of a hero for a dramatic work is also of a historical nature, determined by historical and social circumstances. At the dawn of Soviet drama, finding a positive and negative character was easy for authors. Negative hero there was everyone who held on to yesterday - representatives of the tsarist apparatus, nobles, landowners, merchants, White Guard generals, officers, sometimes even soldiers, but, in any case, everyone who fought against the young Soviet government. Accordingly, it was easy to find a positive hero in the ranks of revolutionaries, party leaders, heroes civil war. Today, in a period of comparative peacetime, the task of finding a hero is much more difficult, because social conflicts are not expressed as clearly as they were expressed during the years of revolution and civil war, or later, during the Great Patriotic War.
A “positive” hero also lies in the fact that in drama, as in literature in general, in a number of cases the hero with whom we sympathize is not an example to follow, a model of behavior and life position. We sincerely sympathize with them as victims of a society living according to the laws of animal morality, but we naturally reject their way of struggling with their lack of rights and humiliation. The main thing is that in life there are no absolutely positive or absolutely negative people. Thus, in life, a “positive” person would have no reason or opportunity to turn out to be “negative” and vice versa—art would lose its meaning.
The hero of a dramatic work, in contrast to the hero of prose, whom the author usually describes in detail and comprehensively, characterizes himself, in the words of L. M. Gorky, “on his own,” by his actions, without the help of the author’s description. This does not mean that remarks cannot be given brief characteristics to the heroes. But we must not forget that stage directions are written for the director and performer. The audience in the theater will not hear them.
10. Historical and documentary dramaturgy
Documentary dramaturgy, which now occupies so much significant place in literature for stage and screen, was generated by the Great October Revolution socialist revolution. The young Soviet government revealed the secret archives of previous anti-people regimes and made their contents the most important component of revolutionary propaganda, its ideological and educational work.
At that time, however, there was a seemingly insurmountable obstacle to documentary propaganda - the illiteracy of the majority of the population of former tsarist Russia. Therefore, even published documentary materials, even those published in newspapers, remained virtually inaccessible to the general public. The question arose about intelligible and effective forms of reading documentary materials exposing the overthrown tsarist regime and the counter-revolution operating against Soviet power. At that moment, revolutionary art and, above all, documentary theater came to the aid of revolutionary propaganda.
Documentary theater was born in the midst of the masses, in Red Army and workers' clubs. Literary and musical montages, theatrical reading of the transcript.
At that initial stage of its development, documentary drama did not become a fact of life in professional theater.
After World War II began new stage in the development of documentary art. The surge of interest in documentary filmmaking was caused by serious social factors. And this time, the political events that shook the world played a major role in the emergence of exceptional interest in the documented fact.
The 20th century brought unprecedented mass tragedies to humanity. Two world wars, fascism, atomic bombings, ongoing local wars across vast areas of the globe.
The demands of the viewer and reader for the authenticity of works of literature and art have grown enormously. Art and literature deeply and subtly felt the emergence of new cognitive and aesthetic needs and possibilities. They responded to them with works of the documentary genre. Moreover, the severity and scale of the emerging need for works that document reality have given rise to the emergence of a new genre - works “under document”, putting a fictional plot into documentary form.
The birth of the genre - “under the document” - indicates that the interest and trust of the reader and viewer in the documentary narrative is so great that even the form of documentary presentation itself, even when its content does not go back to documentary materials, is capable of exerting a persuasive effect on them , create the effect of authenticity of what is written or shown on stage and on screen.
Modern nonfiction was not born out of nowhere. The human desire to see in art, that is, in the artistic understanding of reality, a reliable picture of the world is as old as art itself.
Even in ancient works of religious literature, descriptions of such “facts” as miracles always tried to rely on “real” eyewitnesses, on real “healed” people. People have always tried to give one or another real image to God himself.
Fiction also strived for verisimilitude and authenticity of its images.
In the 19th century, literature, and Russian literature in particular, came close to using documentary facts and historical documents to enhance the effect of authenticity.
As for works of prose and drama based on documentary material, they completely belong to fiction. First of all, because the documentary work is by no means devoid of fiction
The author of a historical documentary work must not only know well the historical material he uses, but also deeply and clearly imagine the period of history to which this material relates, must become a historian of the time he depicts. Using a document without taking into account the totality of historical facts to which it relates can greatly distort the historical picture.
It only remains to add that there are no “non-historical” documents. Any fact certified by a document has already become a thing of the past. We can only talk about the degree of remoteness of this past. Any documentary work is essentially historical and documentary.
Documentary works are most accurately classified as those in which the reproduction of original documents is the main thing. artistic medium impact on the reader and viewer constitutes the main texture, the essence of the work.
A document is a sharp weapon. Its authenticity contributes to creating the effect of authenticity of the work. However, the very authenticity of the documents used is by no means a guarantee of the objectivity and truthfulness of the picture of the historical past depicted in the documentary work.
The only guarantee of objectivity and truthfulness of the picture depicted in a documentary work is the objectivity author's position, civil honesty of the author, as well as a sufficient level of his knowledge.
Conclusion
Modern drama in any era presents a difficult problem to define. Time sometimes places completely different accents than contemporaries. The same will probably happen with our time. Now we can name dozens of famous, famous playwrights. But how many of them remain in the history of the theater?
Some researchers propose to define the boundaries of modern drama, establishing them from the Second World War to the end of the twentieth century.
The general name of the modern stage is the drama of the late twentieth century. It is characterized by a feeling of apocalypse, loss of spiritual values and the dominance of material values.
Modern dramaturgy is a living, developing process in which playwrights of different generations and different creative directions interact.
References
1. Al D.N. Fundamentals of Drama / textbook for students of the Institute of Culture, Leningrad 1988
2. Sazonova E.V. Theory of drama and the basics of screenwriting / Barnaul / Publishing house of the Altai State Academy of Culture and Arts 2012
Posted on Allbest.ur
Similar documents
A dramatic work is always based on a completely real human situation. The role of internal action in conflict states. The use of internal action in theatrical performances. The system of conflicts in dramaturgy.
course work, added 04/19/2008
Role decoration performance in identifying images of heroes in specific proposed circumstances. Structure and periods of the preparation process new production. The main stages of a director’s work on creating a dramatic work.
test, added 03/09/2009
Introduction to Drama. Fundamentals of dramaturgy TP. Dramaturgy TP. Expressive means of directing, "Mise-en-scène". Basics of the Stanislavsky system. The skill of an actor and director. Script-director's foundations of artistic and pedagogical activity.
abstract, added 05/11/2005
The director's concept of the play based on M. Maeterlinck's play "The Blue Bird": era, ideological, thematic and effective analysis; plot and architectonics, event structure. Genre and stylistic features of a dramatic work; creative production plan.
thesis, added 01/28/2013
Location determination artistic composition in creating the integrity of a dramatic work. Description of editing as a creative method of screenwriter and director. Structural and parallel installation during mass holidays and performances.
abstract, added 03/23/2017
Theaters of Peter the Great's time, distinguished by their accessibility and practicality. The basics of sideshow, which has become an intermediate link between the high repertoire of the theater and the folk theater. The significance of artistic works of classicists in the development of drama.
abstract, added 01/25/2011
Studying the features of mastering artistic theatrical language as a new direction of theatrical XVIII culture century. The specificity of interludes and short comic skits in school drama and drama in the city semi-professional theater.
article, added 08/15/2013
Identification of specific features of the dramaturgy of leisure activities by comparing the work of cultural institutions and theaters. Principles of creating an original artistic and educational work. Rules for writing a script, its structure.
course work, added 02/01/2011
The history of the emergence and development of the genre phenomenon. Features of the connection between genre and the content of a work of art in the field of literature. Genre as a set of works united by a common range of themes and subjects in the visual arts.
abstract, added 07/17/2013
Methods for developing sound dramaturgy. The history of the emergence and development of animation. The sound design of the film, features of the mystic genre. Development of a sound-visual image in the cartoon "Ghost Inventory". Characteristics of technical equipment.
"Drama? one of the main types of fiction... covering works usually intended for stage performance.” This, the most common judgment, is a purely practical definition of drama, which not only does not explain its essence, but also classifies it as literature. Let's look at the definition of drama in a specialized publication: drama is “a type of literary work in dialogic form intended for stage performance.” Here an attempt is made to define a structural principle, but, unfortunately, only one (dialogical form), and nevertheless, from this definition the conclusion follows that drama is only a genre in literature.
The essence of drama is in conflict, struggle, which occurs before our eyes and transforms into a different quality. Drama emphasizes tension and conflict human existence, and they say that it is natural for a person and constantly accompanies him.
Secondly, drama? This is a text written for various roles, based on conflicting action. Hegel wrote about this: “dramatic in the proper sense is the expression of individuals in the struggle of their interests and in the discord of the characters and passions of these individuals.”
Thirdly, the term drama is sometimes used to define a special genre of drama (bourgeois drama, lyrical drama, romantic drama).
“Dramaturgy” is, on the one hand, a type of art, and on the other, a type of literature and theater. Dramaturgy is also sometimes understood as the entirety, a collection of plays (works intended for stage embodiment) at all.
Dramaturgy arises at the moment of the birth and emergence of theater, because it is a product of the creativity of the first playwrights.
Theater at the time of its inception had a ritual basis. Its ritual genesis is beyond any doubt. The ritual basis of the theater?? it is primarily an institution of pagan Mystery. In their ideas, drama occupied a very special place and had a sacred meaning.
Drama connects? according to Hegel? the objectivity of the epic with the subjective beginning of the lyrics. But then he comes to a contradiction: calling drama poetry, he nevertheless notes that “the need for drama in general lies in a visual depiction of ... actions and relationships, accompanied by verbal statements by persons expressing the action.”
Khalizev in his book “Drama as a Phenomenon of Art” considers drama as a literary and artistic form with a certain content. He writes: “...drama as a meaningful form of verbal art is main subject our work." The author examines the artistic possibilities of drama based, firstly, on its verbal nature, and secondly, from its intended use for the stage. It seems to me that this position is largely incorrect, because... drama is primarily written as a work intended to be staged, which imposes certain contours on its forms. Aristotle also wrote about this: “... when putting together legends and expressing them in words, one should present them before one’s eyes as [vividly] as possible: then [the poet], as if he himself were present at the events, will see them most clearly and will be able to find everything that is relevant and in no way miss any contradictions.”
Thus, drama passes the techniques and means of verbal and artistic expression through the filters of stage requirements. M.Ya. wrote about this correlation between the structure of drama and stage execution, and calling it the first requirement for a playwright. Polyakov in his "Poetics". In his opinion, “drama theory” explores and considers drama as a kind of verbal basis theatrical work. This definition is closer to the concept of “drama,” but it is not only a verbal, but also an effective basis, and this should not be forgotten or skipped.
In our opinion, V.M. said most accurately about the essence of the drama. Wolkenstein in the article “The Fates of Dramatic Works”: “I believe that dramas “for reading” (that is, only for reading) do not exist; What's a drama that can't be played? not a drama, but either a treatise or a poem in a dialogical form, and if it is a drama, then it is a failed drama... I... see in drama a natural stage material, a literature of theatrical possibilities... a play is both stage material and a completed work of art.” Dramaturgy? It is precisely the literature of theatrical possibilities; it is not a kind of literature, not a literary and artistic form, and certainly not the highest form of poetry.
Aristotle's Poetics, the first and most important treatise on the theory of drama. The principles that Aristotle defined in his Poetics dominated the theory and practice of Western theater until the twentieth century. They even received names such as “Aristotelian type of action.”
Aristotle divides all scenes of tragedy into three groups:
- 1) Scenes where “happiness” and “unhappiness” alternate;
- 2) Scenes of recognition;
- 3) Scenes of pathos, scenes of violent suffering.
Scenes where the hero’s “happiness” and “misfortune” alternate are scenes of his successes and failures, victories and defeats, where moments of the dominance of “single action” over “counter-action” sharply alternate with moments of the opposite meaning. In other words, these are the scenes that can be called battle scenes.
Aristotle calls scenes of genuine recognition scenes of recognition. In many ancient tragedies, the decisive moment of the struggle - catastrophe - coincides with recognition (for example, recognition of one’s guilt is a catastrophe for Oedipus). Scenes of double spectacle - when a trial takes place on stage, theater performance etc., and some of the characters contemplate the performance together with auditorium, ? are usually recognition scenes.
Brecht coined the term "Aristotelian theatre" to refer to dramaturgy and theater based on the principle of illusion and identification. But, in our opinion, Brecht identified one of the characteristics of action with the entire concept of Aristotle. In principle, the reasons for the emergence of this term are associated with the attempt of many directors and theater workers of the twentieth century to move away from classical techniques in production, to go beyond the canon, and to destroy the usual framework of performance. These searches gave rise to a number of very interesting directions (Brecht's epic theater, Artaud's theater of cruelty, etc.).
With the advent of directing, the playwright and dramaturgy are gradually pushed into the background, and then the actor. The playwright moves into a subordinate position, and drama becomes, according to Wolkenstein’s definition, “the literature of theatrical possibilities.
Our position on this issue is as follows: drama is a certain literary action, fixed by the text of the play in one form or another (which is a genre). The text (literary basis) is not, in our opinion, primary in relation to the definition of “drama” or “drama”; action (drama) is primary. Drama first? This is a stage work (intended for stage performance). Although in the history of the theater there have been plays that were not intended for the stage.
There is drama independent method literary? scenic representation of life, the subject of which is a holistic action, developing from beginning to end (from exposition to denouement) as a result of the volitional efforts of heroes who enter into combat with other characters and objective circumstances. Drama is part of the overall theatrical process; dramaturgy is the art of writing dramas and the entirety of written dramas. It is possible to write a play competently only with good knowledge of the laws of dramaturgy.
Aristotle spoke simply of "the beginning, middle, and end of a play." Obviously, a play that begins by chance and ends because two and a half hours have elapsed will not be a play. Its beginning and end, the coherent construction of all its parts, is determined by the need for a concrete expression of the concept that constitutes the theme of the play.
Lope de Vega, writing in 1609 about “The New Art of Comedy Writing,” gave a brief but useful summary of the structure of the play: “In the first act, state the case. In the second, intertwine the events so that until the middle of the third act it is impossible to guess the denouement. Always subvert expectations."
According to Dumas the Son, “Before creating any situation, the playwright must ask himself three questions. What would I do in a similar situation? What would other people do? What should I do? An author who does not feel inclined to such analysis should leave the theater, because he will never become a playwright.”
The playwright must assume that he is writing for people who know absolutely nothing about his material, except for a few historical topics. And if this is so, then the playwright should make it clear to the audience as soon as possible:
1) who his characters are, 2) where they are, 3) when the action takes place, 4) what exactly in the present and past relationships of his characters serves as the plot.
The beginning of the play is not an absolute beginning; it is just one moment in a larger complex of actions; this is a moment that can be precisely defined and is certainly a very important moment in the development of the plot, because it is the moment when decisions are made (fraught with consequences). This is the moment of awakening the rational will for an intense conflict pursuing a specific goal. Drama is struggle; interest in drama is, first of all, interest in the struggle, in its outcome.
The playwright keeps the reader in suspense, delaying the resolution moment of the battle, introducing new complications, the so-called “imaginary denouement,” temporarily calming the reader and again inciting him with a sudden violent continuation of the struggle. We are fascinated by drama - first of all - as a competition, as a picture of war.
Dramaturgy requires increasing action, the lack of build-up to the action instantly makes the drama boring. Even if a lot of time passes between actions, the playwright portrays to us only moments of clashes growing towards disaster.
Mandatory scene climax. The unflagging interest with which the viewer follows the action can be defined as anticipation mixed with uncertainty. The characters in the play have made a decision; the viewer must understand this decision and imagine its possible result.
The viewer anticipates the realization of these possibilities, the expected collision. The playwright strives to make the action seem inevitable. He will succeed if he captivates the audience and awakens their feelings. But the audience is captivated by the development of the action just as much as they believe in the veracity of each new revelation of reality that affects the goals of the characters.
Since the audience does not know in advance what the climax will be, they cannot check the action in light of the climax. However, they test it in the light of their expectations, which focus on what they consider to be the inevitable result of the action, that is, the obligatory scene.
The climax in drama is the main event that causes the action to build up. Mandatory scene- this is the immediate goal towards which the play develops.
The climax is the point in the play at which the action reaches highest voltage, the most critical stage of development, after which comes the denouement.
At the moment of resolution, we observe in many dramas a construction corresponding to the principle of concentrating forces on a decisive point at a decisive moment. In many plays, the catastrophic moment occurs with the participation - and maximum volitional tension - of all or almost all of the main characters. These are, for example, final scenes many of Shakespeare's plays, for example the finale of Othello, Hamlet, and Schiller's The Thieves. It should be noted that the catastrophe, which in ancient tragedy is followed by a denouement, in many new dramas coincides with the denouement.
IN denouement the fates of all the main characters must be completed.
- (by this, see previous word). Writer of dramatic works. Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. DRAMATURG Greek. dramaturges; etymology see Dramaturgy. Writer of dramas. Explanation of 25,000 foreign... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
Cm … Dictionary of synonyms
playwright- a, m. dramaturge m. gr. dramaturgos the author of the drama. Playwrights are either bad or good. The former write bad plays, the latter do not write plays. S. Guitry. // Borohov. Three tasks of the playwright: the first is to create a situation, the second is to bring the action to it... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
DRAMATURG, playwright, husband. (Greek dramaturges) (lit.). A writer who writes dramatic works. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
dramaturgy- the name of the female family... Spelling dictionary of Ukrainian language
Wiktionary has an article for “playwright” Playwright (ancient Greek ... Wikipedia
playwrights- [درمترگي] 1. mansub ba dramaturgy 2. amal va shugli playwright: mahorati playwrights, faoliyati playwrights... Farhangi tafsiriya zaboni tokiki
playwright - great playwright … Dictionary of Russian Idioms
playwright- DRAMATURG, a, m A writer who creates literary works in the genre of tragedy, comedy or drama, intended for production on stage. And immediately the playwright Korneychuk explained in his play “Front” that the failures of the war were associated with stupid... ... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns
M. A writer who creates dramatic works. Ephraim's explanatory dictionary. T. F. Efremova. 2000... Modern explanatory dictionary Russian language Efremova
Books
- Playwright Pushkin, St. Rassadin. The originality of the language and content of A. S. Pushkin’s dramas is analyzed by the author of this book. He proves that by creating his dramas, Pushkin opens a fundamentally new type, not only of drama, but...
- Playwright for all times, E. Kholodov. There are seven hundred and twenty-eight characters in Ostrovsky's forty-seven plays. 47 is not only wonderful works for reading and for the stage, 728 is not just excellent roles for actors and...
An imaginative concept for such a work.
Dramaturgy is also called the totality of dramatic works of an individual writer, country or people, era.
The understanding of the basic elements of a dramatic work and the principles of dramaturgy is historically variable. Drama was interpreted as an action taking place (and not already accomplished) with the interaction of the character and external position of the characters.
An action represents a known change in a certain period of time. A change in drama corresponds to a change in fate, joyful in comedy and sad in tragedy. The period of time may span several hours, as in French classical drama, or many years, as in Shakespeare.
Encyclopedic YouTube
-
1 / 5
The aesthetically necessary is based on peripeteia unity of action, consisting of moments that not only follow each other in time (chronologically), but also determine each other as cause and effect, only in the latter case the viewer gets a complete illusion of the action taking place before his eyes. The unity of action, the most important of the aesthetic requirements in drama, is not contradicted by the episodes introduced into it (for example, the story of Max and Tekla in Schiller’s “Wallenstein”) or even parallel actions, like another inserted drama, in which their unity must be observed (for example , Shakespeare has a drama in the house of Gloucester next to a drama in the house of Lear).
A drama with one act was called simple, with two or more acts - complex. The first group includes mainly ancient and “classical” French ones, the second group includes most Spanish ones (especially comedies, where the action of lackeys copies the masters) and English ones, especially in Shakespeare. The demand for the so-called “unity of time and place” in drama. That is:
1) the actual duration of the action should not exceed the duration of its reproduction on stage or, in any case, should not be more than a day;
2) the action depicted on stage must take place all the time in the same place.
Dramatic works where several years pass over the course of the play (as in Shakespeare's " Winter's Tale") or the action is transferred from the castle to an open field ("Macbeth"), were considered illegal according to this theory, since the viewer had to mentally transfer them through significant periods of time and vast spaces. The success of such dramas, however, proved that the imagination even in such cases easily lends itself to allusion, if only the psychological motivation in the actions and characters of the characters is maintained, and also corresponds to external conditions.
Nature and conditions
The last two factors can be considered the main levers of the action taking place; in them, those reasons that give the viewer the opportunity to speculate about the expected outcome, maintain dramatic interest in it; they, by forcing the character to act and speak one way and not another, constitute the dramatic fate of the “hero.” If you destroy the causal connection in individual moments of action, interest will be replaced by simple curiosity, and the place of fate will be taken by whim and arbitrariness. Both are equally undramatic, although they can still be tolerated in comedy, the content of which, according to Aristotle, should represent “harmless incongruity.” A tragedy in which the causal connection between an act and fate is destroyed, rather outrages than touches the viewer, as an image of causeless and senseless cruelty; These are, for example, in German dramatic literature so-called tragedy of fate (Schicksalstragödien by Müllner, Werner, etc.). Since action proceeds from causes to consequences (progressively), then at the beginning of the dialogue the former are set out, since they are given in the characters of the characters and in their position (exposition, expositio); the final consequences (denouement) are concentrated at the end of D. (catastrophe). The middle moment when a change occurs for better or worse is called peripeteia. These three parts, necessary in each act, can be designated in the form of special sections (acts or actions) or stand side by side, inseparably (one-act acts). Between them, as the action expands, further acts are introduced (usually odd number, most often 5; in Indian D. more, in Chinese up to 21). The action is complicated by elements that slow down and accelerate it. To obtain a complete illusion, the action must be reproduced specifically (in a theatrical performance), and it depends on the author whether to submit to one or another of the requirements of the contemporary theatrical business or not. When special cultural conditions are depicted in D. - as, for example, in historical D. - it is necessary to reproduce the setting, clothing, etc. as accurately as possible.
Types of dramas
Types of D. are classified either by form or by content (plot). In the first case, German theorists distinguish between character traits and situations, depending on how the speeches and actions of the heroes are explained; whether internal conditions (character) or external (chance, fate). The first category belongs to the so-called. modern D. (Shakespeare and his imitators), to the second - the so-called. antique (ancient playwrights and their imitators, French “classics”, Schiller in “The Bride of Messina”, etc.). Based on the number of participants, monodramas, duodramas and polydramas are distinguished. When distributing by plot, we mean: 1) the nature of the plot, 2) its origin. According to Aristotle, the nature of the plot can be serious (in a tragedy) - then compassion (for the hero D.) and fear (for oneself: nihil humani a nobis alienum!) should be aroused in the audience - or harmless for the hero and funny for the viewer ( in comedy). In both cases, a change for the worse occurs: in the first case, harmful (death or serious misfortune of the main person), in the second - harmless (for example, a self-seeking person does not receive the expected profit, a braggart suffers disgrace, etc.). If the transition from misfortune to happiness is depicted, we, in the case of true benefit for the hero, have D. in the strict sense of the word; if the happiness is only illusory (for example, the foundation of the kingdom of air in Aristophanes’ “The Birds”), then the result is a joke (farce). Based on the origin (sources) of the content (plot), the following groups can be distinguished: 1) D. with content from fantasy world(poetic or fairy-tale D., magic plays); 2) D. with a religious plot (mimic, spiritual D., mystery); 3) A drama with a plot from real life (a realistic, secular, everyday play), and the historical past or the present can be depicted. D., depicting the fate of an individual, are called biographical, depicting types - genre; both can be historical or contemporary.
In ancient drama, the center of gravity lies in external forces (in position), in the drama of the New Age - in inner world hero (in his character ). The classics of German drama (Goethe and Schiller) tried to bring these two principles closer together. The new drama is distinguished by a broader course of action, diversity and individual character traits, and greater realism in the depiction of external life; the constraints of the ancient choir have been cast aside; the motives for the speeches and actions of the characters are more nuanced; the plastic of ancient drama is replaced by the picturesque, the beautiful is combined with the interesting, tragedy with the comic and vice versa. The difference between English and Spanish drama is that in the latter, along with the actions of the hero, a playful incident in a comedy and the mercy or wrath of a deity in a tragedy play a role; in the former, the fate of the hero follows entirely from his character and actions. Spanish folk art reached its peak in Lope de Vega, and artistic art in Calderon; The culmination of English drama is Shakespeare. Through Ben Johnson and his students, Spanish and French influences penetrated into England. In France, Spanish models fought with ancient ones; Thanks to the academy founded by Richelieu, the latter gained the upper hand, and a French (pseudo) classical tragedy was created based on the rules of Aristotle, poorly understood by Corneille. The best side of this drama was the unity and completeness of the action, clear motivation and clarity of the internal conflict of the characters; but due to a lack of external action, rhetoric developed in her, and the desire for correctness constrained naturalness and freedom of expression. They stand above all in the classic. tragedies by the French Corneille, Racine and Voltaire, and comedies by Moliere. Philosophy of the 18th century. made a change in French D. and caused the so-called. petty-bourgeois tragedy in prose (Diderot), which dealt with the depiction of the tragedy of everyday life, and genre (everyday) comedy (Beaumarchais), in which the modern social system was ridiculed. This trend also spread to German D., where until then French classicism had dominated (Gottsched in Leipzig, Sonnenfels in Vienna). Lessing, with his “Hamburg Drama,” put an end to false classicism and created German drama (tragedy and comedy) following the example of Diderot. Pointing at the same time to the ancients and to Shakespeare as examples to follow, he continued his path in silence. classical drama, the heyday of which was the time of Goethe (who was first influenced by Shakespeare, then the ancients, and finally, in Faust, the medieval mysteries) and the national German playwright Schiller. After this, no new original trends arose in poetry, but artistic examples of all types of other poetry appeared. The most noticeable imitation of Shakespeare among the German romantics (G. Kleist, Grabbe, etc.). Thanks to the imitation of Shakespeare and the Spanish theater, a revolution also occurred in French drama. new life which also included the development of social problems (V. Hugo, A. Dumas, A. de Vigny). Samples of salon plays were given by Scribe; the moral comedies of Beaumarchais were revived in the dramatic films of morals by A. Dumas fils, E. Ogier, V. Sardou, Palieron and others.
Dramaturgy is a type of literature
Drama - 2
Drama in Russia - 4
Drama - 5
Types of dramas - 8
Drama
Drama (Greek Δρα´μα) is one of the types of literature (along with lyrics, epic, and lyric epic). It differs from other types of literature in the way it conveys the plot - not through narration or monologue, but through character dialogues. Anything relates to drama in one way or another literary work, built in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc.
Since ancient times it has existed in folklore or literary form among various peoples; The ancient Greeks, ancient Indians, Chinese, Japanese, and American Indians created their own dramatic traditions independently of each other.
IN Greek the word "drama" reflects a sad, unpleasant event or situation of one specific person.
The beginnings of drama are in primitive poetry, in which the later elements of lyricism, epic and drama merged in connection with music and facial movements. Earlier than among other nations, drama special kind poetry was formed among the Hindus and Greeks.
Greek drama, developing serious religious-mythological plots (tragedy) and funny ones drawn from modern life (comedy), reaches high perfection and in the 16th century is a model for European drama, which until that time had artlessly treated religious and secular narrative plots (mysteries, school dramas and sideshows, fastnachtspiel, sottises).
French playwrights, imitating the Greek ones, strictly adhered to certain provisions that were considered unchangeable for the aesthetic dignity of drama, such as: unity of time and place; the duration of the episode depicted on stage should not exceed a day; the action must take place in the same place; the drama should develop correctly in 3-5 acts, from the beginning (clarification of the initial position and characters of the characters) through the middle vicissitudes (changes of positions and relationships) to the denouement (usually a catastrophe); the number of characters is very limited (usually from 3 to 5); These are exclusively the highest representatives of society (kings, queens, princes and princesses) and their closest servants-confidants, who are introduced from the stage for the convenience of conducting dialogue and delivering remarks. These are the main features of French classical drama (Cornel, Racine).
The rigor of the requirements of the classical style was no longer observed in comedies (Molière, Lope de Vega, Beaumarchais), which gradually moved from convention to the depiction of ordinary life (genre). Free from classical conventions, Shakespeare's work opened up new paths for drama. The end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries were marked by the appearance of romantic and national dramas: Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Hugo, Kleist, Grabbe.
In the second half of XIX century, realism takes over in European drama (Dumas the son, Ogier, Sardou, Palleron, Ibsen, Sudermann, Schnitzler, Hauptmann, Beyerlein).
In the last quarter of the XIX century, under the influence of Ibsen and Maeterlinck, symbolism begins to take over the European stage (Hauptmann, Przebyshevsky, Bahr, D’Annunzio, Hofmannsthal).
Drama in Russia
Drama in Russia was brought from the West at the end of the 17th century. Independent dramatic literature appeared only at the end of the 18th century. Until the first quarter of the 19th century, the classical direction predominated in drama, both in tragedy and in comedy and comedy opera; best authors: Lomonosov, Knyazhnin, Ozerov; I. Lukin’s attempt to draw the attention of playwrights to the depiction of Russian life and morals remained in vain: all of their plays are lifeless, stilted and alien to Russian reality, except for the famous “The Minor” and “The Brigadier” by Fonvizin, “The Sneaker” by Kapnist and some comedies.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Shakhovskaya, Khmelnitsky, Zagoskin became imitators of light French drama and comedy, and the representative of stilted patriotic drama was the Puppeteer. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”, later “The Inspector General”, Gogol’s “Marriage”, become the foundation of Russian domestic drama. After Gogol, even in vaudeville (D. Lensky, F. Koni, Sollogub, Karatygin) there is a noticeable desire to get closer to life.
Ostrovsky gave a number of wonderful historical chronicles and everyday comedies. After him, Russian drama stood on solid ground; the most outstanding playwrights: A. Sukhovo-Kobylin, A. Potekhin, A. Palm, V. Dyachenko, I. Chernyshev, V. Krylov, N. Chaev, gr. A. Tolstoy, gr. L. Tolstoy, D. Averkiev, P. Boborykin, Prince Sumbatov, Novezhin, N. Gnedich, Shpazhinsky, Evt. Karpov, V. Tikhonov, I. Shcheglov, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev and others
Dramaturgy
Dramaturgy (from ancient Greek δραματουργία “composing or staging dramatic works”) is the theory and art of constructing a dramatic work, as well as the plot-shaped concept of such a work.
Dramaturgy is also called the totality of dramatic works of an individual writer, country or people, era.
Understanding the basic elements of a dramatic work and the principles of dramaturgy are historically variable. Drama was interpreted as an action taking place (and not already accomplished) with the interaction of the character and external position of the characters.
An action represents a known change in a certain period of time. A change in drama corresponds to a change in fate, joyful in comedy and sad in tragedy. The period of time may span several hours, as in French classical drama, or many years, as in Shakespeare.
The aesthetically necessary unity of action is based on peripeteia, consisting of moments that not only follow each other in time (chronologically), but also determine each other as cause and effect; only in the latter case does the viewer get a complete illusion of the action taking place before his eyes. The unity of action, the most important of the aesthetic requirements in drama, is not contradicted by the episodes introduced into it (for example, the story of Max and Tekla in Schiller’s “Wallenstein”) or even by parallel action, like another inserted drama, in which its unity must be maintained (for example , Shakespeare has a drama in the house of Gloucester next to a drama in the house of Lear).
A drama with one act was called simple, with two or many acts - complex. The former include mainly ancient and “classical” French, the latter - most Spanish (especially in comedy, where the action of lackeys copies the masters) and English, especially in Shakespeare. The requirement for the so-called “unity of time and place” in drama is based on a misunderstanding (namely, on the misunderstood “Poetics” of Aristotle), that is,
1) so that the actual duration of the action does not exceed the duration of its reproduction on stage or, in any case, would not be more than a day; 2) so that the action depicted on stage takes place all the time in the same place.
Dramas like Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” or “King Lear” (scenes either in England or in France) were considered illegal according to this theory, since the viewer had to be mentally transported through significant periods of time and vast spaces. The success of such dramas has sufficiently proven, however, that even in such cases the imagination easily lends itself to allusion, if only the psychological motivation in the actions of the characters, their character and external conditions is maintained.
The last two factors can be considered the main levers of the action taking place; in them, those reasons that give the viewer the opportunity to speculate about the expected outcome, maintain dramatic interest in it; They, by forcing the character to act and speak this way and not otherwise, constitute the dramatic fate of the “hero.” If you destroy the causal connection in individual moments of action, interest will be replaced by simple curiosity, and the place of fate will be taken by whim and arbitrariness. Both are equally undramatic, although they can still be tolerated in comedy, the content of which, according to Aristotle, should represent “harmless incongruity.” A tragedy in which the causal connection between an act and fate is destroyed, rather outrages than touches the viewer, as an image of causeless and senseless cruelty; These are, for example, in German dramatic literature the so-called. tragedy of fate (Schicksalstragödien by Müllner, Werner, etc.). Since action proceeds from causes to consequences (progressively), then at the beginning of the dialogue the former are set out, since they are given in the characters of the characters and in their position (exposition, expositio); the final consequences (denouement) are concentrated at the end of D. (catastrophe). The middle moment when a change occurs for better or worse is called peripeteia. These three parts, necessary in each act, can be designated in the form of special sections (acts or actions) or stand side by side, inseparably (one-act acts). Between them, as the action expands, further acts are introduced (usually an odd number, most often 5; in Indian laws more, in Chinese up to 21). The action is complicated by elements that slow down and accelerate it. To obtain a complete illusion, the action must be reproduced specifically (in a theatrical performance), and it depends on the author whether to submit to one or another of the requirements of the contemporary theatrical business or not. When special cultural conditions are depicted in D. - as, for example, in historical D. - it is necessary to reproduce the setting, clothing, etc. as accurately as possible.
Types of dramas
Types of dramas are classified either by form or by content (plot). In the first case, German theorists distinguish between character traits and situations, depending on how the speeches and actions of the heroes are explained; whether internal conditions (character) or external (chance, fate). The first category belongs to the so-called. modern D. (Shakespeare and his imitators), to the second - the so-called. antique (ancient playwrights and their imitators, French “classics”, Schiller in “The Bride of Messina”, etc.). Based on the number of participants, monodramas, duodramas and polydramas are distinguished. When distributing by plot, we mean: 1) the nature of the plot, 2) its origin. According to Aristotle, the nature of the plot can be serious (in a tragedy) - then compassion (for the hero D.) and fear (for oneself: nil humani a nobis alienum!) should be aroused in the audience - or harmless for the hero and funny for the viewer ( in comedy). In both cases, a change for the worse occurs: in the first case, harmful (death or serious misfortune of the main person), in the second - harmless (for example, a self-seeking person does not receive the expected profit, a braggart suffers disgrace, etc.). If the transition from misfortune to happiness is depicted, we, in the case of true benefit for the hero, have D. in the strict sense of the word; if the happiness is only illusory (for example, the foundation of the kingdom of air in Aristophanes’ “The Birds”), then the result is a joke (farce). Based on the origin (sources) of the content (plot), the following groups can be distinguished: 1) D. with content from the fantasy world (poetic or fairy-tale D., magic plays); 2) D. with a religious plot (mimic, spiritual D., mystery); 3) A drama with a plot from real life (a realistic, secular, everyday play), and the historical past or the present can be depicted. D., depicting the fate of an individual, are called biographical, depicting types - genre; both can be historical or contemporary.
In ancient drama, the center of gravity lies in external forces (in position), in modern drama - in the inner world of the hero (in his character). The classics of German drama (Goethe and Schiller) tried to bring these two principles closer together. The new drama is distinguished by a broader course of action, diversity and individual character traits, and greater realism in the depiction of external life; the constraints of the ancient choir have been cast aside; the motives for the speeches and actions of the characters are more nuanced; the plastic of ancient drama is replaced by the picturesque, the beautiful is combined with the interesting, tragedy with the comic and vice versa. The difference between English and Spanish drama is that in the latter, along with the actions of the hero, a playful incident in a comedy and the mercy or wrath of a deity in a tragedy play a role; in the former, the fate of the hero follows entirely from his character and actions. Spanish folk art reached its peak in Lope de Vega, and artistic art in Calderon; the culmination of English dialogue is Shakespeare. Through Ben Jonson and his students, Spanish and French influences penetrated into England. In France, Spanish models fought with ancient ones; Thanks to the academy founded by Richelieu, the latter gained the upper hand, and a French (pseudo) classical tragedy was created based on the rules of Aristotle, poorly understood by Corneille. The best side of this drama was the unity and completeness of the action, clear motivation and clarity of the internal conflict of the characters; but due to a lack of external action, rhetoric developed in her, and the desire for correctness constrained naturalness and freedom of expression. They stand highest in the classic. tragedies by the French Corneille, Racine and Voltaire, and comedies by Moliere. Philosophy of the 18th century made a change in French D. and caused the so-called. petty-bourgeois tragedy in prose (Diderot), which dealt with the depiction of the tragedy of everyday life, and genre (everyday) comedy (Beaumarchais), in which the modern social system was ridiculed. This trend also spread to German D., where until then French classicism had dominated (Gottsched in Leipzig, Sonnenfels in Vienna). Lessing, with his “Hamburg Drama,” put an end to false classicism and created German drama (tragedy and comedy) following the example of Diderot. Pointing at the same time to the ancients and to Shakespeare as examples to follow, he continued his journey in silence. classical drama, the heyday of which was the time of Goethe (who was first influenced by Shakespeare, then the ancients, and finally, in Faust, the medieval mysteries) and the national German playwright Schiller. New original directions after this in D. did not arise, but artistic examples of all types of other poetry appeared. The most noticeable imitation of Shakespeare among the German romantics (G. Kleist, Grabbe, etc.). Thanks to the imitation of Shakespeare and the Spanish theater, a revolution also took place in French drama, into which new life was brought by the development of social problems (V. Hugo, A. Dumas, A. de Vigny). Samples of salon plays were given by Scribe; the moral comedies of Beaumarchais were revived in the dramatic films of morals by A. Dumas fils, E. Ogier, V. Sardou, Palieron and others.