Social psychological parameters of management activities. Psychology of management activities

29.09.2019

Introduction…………………………………………………….………………
1. Management psychology: its object and subject.
2. Psychological patterns of management activities.
2.1. Psychology of management on the threshold of the third millennium.
3. Personality as an object of management…………………………………
3. 1. The concept of personality and its structure……………………………
3. 2. Some psychological schools of personality study……
3. 3. Motivation as a factor in personality management………………
4. Psychology of conflict………………………………………………………………
4.1. The nature and social role of conflicts. The reasons for their occurrence
4.2. Classification of conflicts. Types of people's behavior in conflict situations.
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………
Literature……………………………………………………………………

Introduction

Management psychology as a science produces psychological knowledge used in solving the problem of managing the activities of the workforce.

The personality of an employee is studied by a number of psychological disciplines, such as general psychology, labor psychology, and engineering psychology. At the same time, the work group or work collective is studied by social and educational psychology.

A distinctive feature of management psychology is that its object is the organized activities of people. Organized activity is not just a joint activity of people united by common interests or goals, sympathies or values, it is the activity of people united in one organization, subject to the rules and regulations of this organization and performing their assigned joint work in accordance with economic, technological, legal, organizational and corporate requirements.

The rules, norms and requirements of the organization presuppose and give rise to special psychological relationships between people who exist only in an organization are the managerial relations of people.

Socio-psychological relations act as relationships between people, mediated by the goals, objectives and values of joint activities, i.e. its real content. Managerial relations constitute organized joint activities and make them organized. In other words, these are not relationships in connection with activity, but relationships that form joint activity.

IN social psychology an individual worker acts as a part, as an element of the whole, i.e. social group outside of which his behavior cannot be understood.

In management psychology, both an individual worker, a social group, and a collective act in the context of the organization to which they belong and without which their analysis in terms of management is incomplete.

Studying the personality of an employee in an organization, analyzing the influence of the organization on the socio-psychological structure and development of the team - all this and much more constitute the relevance of my work, which pushed me to a more thorough study of management psychology.

1. Management psychology: its object and subject

In management psychology, in contrast to labor psychology, for example, the actual problem is not the problem of employee compliance with his profession, not the problem of professional selection and career guidance, but the problem of employee compliance with the organization, the problem of selecting people into the organization and their orientation in relation to the characteristics of this organization.

In management psychology, in contrast to the social psychology of work, the object of study is not just the relationships of people in a team or social group, but the relationships of people in an organization, i.e. in conditions when the actions of each participant in a joint activity are specified, prescribed, subordinated to the general order of work, when the participants are connected with each other not just by mutual dependence and mutual responsibility, but also by responsibility before the law.

The object of study of management psychology is people who are financially and legally part of independent organizations whose activities are focused on corporately useful goals.

Approaches to understanding the subject of management psychology are diverse, which to a certain extent indicates the complexity of this phenomenon.

Thus, psychologists E. E. Vendrov and L. I. Umansky highlight the following aspects of the subject of management psychology:

Social and psychological issues of production groups and teams;

Psychology of leader activity; - psychology of the leader’s personality; - psychological problems of selecting management personnel; - psychological and pedagogical problems of training and retraining of management personnel.

Psychologists V. F. Rubakhin and A. V. Filippov include in the subject of management psychology:

Functional-structural analysis of management activities;

Social and psychological analysis of production and management teams and the relationships of people in them;

Psychological problems of relationships between the manager and subordinates and others.

Summarizing all that has been said, we can conclude that the subject of management psychology is a set of mental phenomena and relationships in an organization, in particular:

Psychological factors of effective performance of managers;

Psychological characteristics of making individual and group decisions; - psychological problems of leadership; - problems of motivation of behavioral acts of subjects of management relations and more.

It can be argued that the subject of studying management psychology organically includes traditional socio-psychological phenomena (leadership, psychological climate, psychology of communication, etc.), psychological problems of work activity (mental states within the framework of work activity, for example), general psychology (psychological activity theory, personality theory, development theory), and other applied areas of psychology.

Among specialists in the field of management psychology, unity has been achieved regarding the idea of the most relevant psychological problems for the organization. These include the following:

Increasing the professional competence of leaders (managers) at all levels, i.e. improving management styles, interpersonal communication, decision making, strategic planning and marketing, overcoming stress and more;

Increasing the efficiency of training and retraining methods for management personnel;

Search and activation of human resources of the organization; - assessment and selection (selection) of managers for the needs of the organization; - assessment and improvement of the socio-psychological climate, rallying personnel around the goals of the organization.

Management psychology as a science and practice is designed to provide psychological training for managers, to form or develop their psychological management culture, to create the necessary prerequisites for theoretical understanding and practical application of the most important problems in the field of management, which include: - understanding the nature of management processes; - knowledge of the basics of organizational structure; - a clear understanding of the manager’s responsibility and its distribution among levels of responsibility; - knowledge of ways to improve management efficiency; - knowledge information technology and communication tools necessary for personnel management; - the ability to express one’s thoughts orally and in writing; - competence in relation to people management, selection and training of specialists capable of leadership, optimization of official and interpersonal relationships among employees of the organization;

Ability to plan and forecast the activities of an organization using computer technology;

The ability to evaluate one’s own activities, draw the right conclusions and improve one’s skills based on the requirements of the current day and expected changes in the future;

a developed understanding of the characteristics of organizational behavior, the structure of small groups, the motives and mechanisms of their behavior.

2.Psychological patterns of management activities

As you know, management is carried out through the interaction of people, so the manager in his activities must take into account the laws that determine the dynamics of mental processes, interpersonal relationships, and group behavior. Some of these patterns include the following. Law of response uncertainty. Another formulation of it is the law of dependence of people’s perception of external influences on the differences in their psychological structures. The point is that different people and even one person in different times can react differently to the same influences. This can and often does lead to a misunderstanding of the needs of the subjects of management relations, their expectations, the peculiarities of perception of a particular business situation and, as a result, to the use of interaction models that are inadequate neither to the characteristics of psychological structures in general, nor to the mental state of each of the partners at a particular moment in the situation. in particular.

The law of the inadequacy of the reflection of man by man. Its essence is that no person can comprehend another person with such a degree of reliability that would be sufficient to make serious decisions regarding that person.

This is explained by the super-complexity of the nature and essence of man, which is constantly changing in accordance with the law of age-related asynchrony. In fact, at different points in his life, even an adult of a certain calendar age may be at different levels physiological, intellectual, emotional, social, sexual, motivational-volitional decision. Moreover, any person consciously or unconsciously protects himself from attempts to understand his characteristics in order to avoid the danger of becoming a toy in the hands of a person prone to manipulating people.

Even the fact that often a person himself does not know himself fully enough is important.

Thus, any person, no matter what he is, always hides something about himself, weakens something, strengthens something, denies some information about himself, replaces something, attributes something to himself (invents ), emphasizes something, etc. Using such defensive techniques, he shows himself to people not as he really is, but as he would like others to see him.

Nevertheless, any person as a private representative of the objects of social reality can be known. And at present, scientific principles of approaching man as an object of knowledge are being successfully developed. Among these principles, we can note, in particular, such as principle of universal talent("there are no incapable people, there are people busy with other things"); development principle(“abilities develop as a result of changes in the individual’s living conditions and intellectual and psychological training”); principle of inexhaustibility(“no assessment of a person during his lifetime can be considered final”).

The law of inadequacy of self-esteem. The fact is that the human psyche is an organic unity, the integrity of two components - the conscious (logical-mental) and the unconscious (emotional-sensual, intuitive) and these components (or parts of the personality) relate to each other like the surface and underwater parts of an iceberg .

The law of splitting the meaning of management information. Any management information (directives, regulations, orders, orders, instructions, instructions) has an objective tendency to change its meaning in the process of moving along the hierarchical management ladder. This is due, on the one hand, to the allegorical capabilities of the natural language of information used, which leads to differences in the interpretation of information, and on the other hand, to differences in education, intellectual development, physical and, especially, mental state of the subjects of analysis and transmission of management information. The change in the meaning of information is directly proportional to the number of people through whom it passes.

Law of self-preservation. Its meaning is that the leading motive social behavior of the subject of management activity is the preservation of his personal social status, his personal viability, and self-esteem. The nature and direction of behavior patterns in the system of management activities are directly related to taking into account or ignoring this circumstance.

Law of compensation. With a high level of incentives for a given job or high environmental demands on a person, the lack of any abilities for successful specific activities is compensated by other abilities or skills. This compensatory mechanism often operates unconsciously, and the person gains experience through trial and error. However, it should be borne in mind that this law practically does not work at sufficiently high levels of complexity of management activities.

The science of management, naturally, is not limited to the above psychological laws. There are many other patterns, the honor of the discovery of which belongs to a number of outstanding specialists in the field of management psychology, whose names are assigned to these discoveries. These are Parkinson's laws, Peter's principles, Murphy's laws and others.

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Introduction

1. Psychology of management activities

1.1 Subject, tasks, essence and basic concepts of managerial psychology

1.2 Methodological approaches to management

2. Social psychological problems in the team

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

I did not choose this topic of work by chance, since management psychology, as part of the science of management, has both theoretical and practical significance, which acquires acute significance. As an applied branch, management psychology has broad and close relationships with other scientific disciplines, for example, with social and general psychology, sociology, philosophy, etc.

Management is the oldest field of human activity. It exists as long as people live and work in communities. Only through coordinated actions could people develop and create enormous material and social values.

The purpose of the work is to reveal the tasks, essence and basic concepts of managerial psychology, to identify social psychological problems in the team

Job objectives:

Study the socio-economic and psychological attitudes of management;

Consider methodological approaches to management;

Consider psychological problems in the team.

The object of the study is management psychology.

1. Psychology of management activities

1.1 Subject, objectives, essence and basic conceptsmanagerial psychology

Before turning to the evolution of management thought, let us define the basic concepts with which management psychology operates.

Basic concepts of management psychology.

Management is a set of system of coordinated activities aimed at achieving significant goals of the organization.

Management psychology - its synonyms are the concepts of “management”, “organizational psychology”, “psychology of organizations”.

Modern German researchers of management problems W. Siegert and L. Lang give the following definition of management: “Management is the leadership of people and the use of means that allows you to carry out assigned tasks in a humane, economical and rational way.”

The famous American scientist P. Drucker also defines the concept of “management”. From his point of view, “management is special kind activities that transform a disorganized crowd into an effective, focused and productive group."

Organization:

1. A structure within which certain activities are carried out to achieve certain significant goals.

2. One of the control functions.

In order for a group to be called an organization, several steps must be completed. mandatory requirements. These include:

a) the presence of at least two people who consider themselves members of this group;

b) the presence of at least one goal as an end state or result, which is accepted as common to all members of this group;

c) the existence of group members who consciously and intentionally work together to achieve a goal that is meaningful to them all.

The starting point of management is setting organizational goals. In relation to an organization, a Goal is a specific state or desired results that are achieved through the joint efforts of workers united in groups.

Management psychology is part of a comprehensive science of management.

The goal of management psychology is to develop ways to improve the efficiency and quality of life of organizational systems.

The subject of management psychology is the activities of leaders (managers), implemented in the performance of basic management functions.

Sources of management psychology:

a) management practice;

b) development of psychological science;

c) development of the sociology of organizations.

In management psychology the concept of “human factor” is often used. The concept of “human factor” began to be used during the Second World War. It is borrowed from English. The human factor is everything that depends on a person, his capabilities, desires, abilities, etc.

Its importance is determined by the fact that the role of man and his capabilities in the process of managing various objects is increasing.

The more complex the control, the more the demands on human intellectual functions and other mental processes increase, ranging from perception and attention to responsibility for human lives.

The human factor is also important where methods taking into account the psychological and psychophysiological properties of a person are introduced into practice. In this case, it is possible to reduce defects in the process of creating a particular type of product.

Underestimation of the human factor usually leads to an increase in the number of industrial conflicts in production, increased staff turnover, and increased disruptions in work, resulting in losses in labor productivity.

Reasonable use of the human factor, i.e. taking into account the personal, socio-psychological, psychophysiological, motivational characteristics of people can help obtain a significant economic effect even without economic costs. An example of this would be the creation of small groups taking into account group cohesion, group unity and other important socio-psychological phenomena.

The activities of a modern manager directly depend on the skillful use of the human factor. A manager must have certain management abilities in order to properly influence the people who are subordinate to him, as well as those who do not report to him, but on whom the work of the entire organization he manages depends.

The activities of a manager are very diverse. He is responsible for performing all management functions: strategic planning, marketing, operational management, personnel management.

When we talk about management, we mean a group of managers. If we are talking about economics, then we mean:

Senior managers;

Middle managers subordinate to the directorate;

Grassroots managers (heads of departments and workshops).

Well-known researchers of management problems G. Kunz and S. O'Donnell noted that “management is not only the function of the president of the corporation and the general commander of the army, but also the head of the workshop and the company commander.”

In this regard, it becomes clear that there are no significant differences between managers and managers, administrators and supervisors. What they have in common is that they all perform certain functions, achieving results by creating the necessary conditions for effective group activity. Among psychological disciplines, management psychology is an independent branch of psychology. Its connections with general psychology, social psychology, engineering psychology, ergonomics, economic psychology, as well as with other sciences, such as philosophy and sociology of organizations, are well known.

Management psychology is called an “interdisciplinary” branch of science. It intersects with various areas of psychology. So, for example, general psychology, as well as management psychology, studies motivation, personality, will, emotions and feelings, stress, etc.

But, unlike general psychology, in which the main problem is the problem of personality, in management psychology it is considered in the applied aspect: as the subject and object of management.

The most important problem of general psychology is also the problem of motivation. It occupies an important place in management psychology, because motivation is considered one of the most complex functions management.

The relationship between management psychology and social psychology is known. The object of research in management psychology is not only the individual, but also small groups, which are one of the most complex phenomena of social psychology. They are studied not only by social psychology, but also by sociology; they are “working groups” or “small groups”. The main subject of management is the leader responsible for the work of small groups.

1.2 Methodological approaches to management

There are three main approaches to management: systemic, situational and process.

The main methodological approach to management is the systems approach. With its help, the organization is viewed as a single whole with all its most complex connections and relationships, as well as the coordination of the activities of all its subsystems.

The systems approach requires the use of the principle of feedback between parts and the whole; the whole and the environment (i.e. the environment), as well as between the parts and the environment. This principle is a manifestation of the dialectic of interdependence between various properties.

The smooth functioning of an organization is influenced by many factors, the most important of which are psychological and socio-psychological phenomena.

System is a unity consisting of interdependent parts, each of which brings something specific to the unique characteristics of the whole. Organizations are considered open systems because they interact dynamically with the external environment.

With regard to management problems in systematic approach The most important thing is to do the following:

a) identification of the research object;

b) determining the hierarchy of system goals and its reflection in the goals of subsystems;

c) a description of the influence of each of the subsystems on the system in which they operate and the reverse influence of the system on the objects of the subsystem;

d) identifying possible ways to improve the activities of the subsystems being studied.

Situational approach.

Another name for it is the “concrete approach.” When using it, managers assume that a specific situation is the basis for application possible methods management. At the same time, the most effective method is considered to be the one that best suits the given management situation.

The situational approach is the concept that the optimal solution is a function of environmental factors in the organization itself (internal variables) and in the environment (external variables). This approach concentrates the main provisions famous schools control by combining certain techniques. This concept is suitable for more effectively achieving organizational goals.

Process approach. This approach is based on the concept that management is a continuous chain of management functions carried out as a result of performing interconnected actions.

With the development of production and scientific research in the field of psychology, social psychology, and sociology of organizations, both followers and opponents of F.U. Taylor. Due to the presence of different approaches to assessing management as a specific human activity, the so-called “schools of management” have emerged, which, despite the ambiguity of interpretations, have contributed to the theory of management.

A. Fayol analyzed the work of the enterprise from the position of a manager. He was the first to note that management is in a certain way connected with the action of psychological factors. Having identified 14 principles of management, he especially highlighted five variables, without which there could be no normal functioning of production.

As for the principles of management, A. Fayol considered them in relation to the work of a manager senior management management.

Emergence classical school management is usually associated with the name of A. Fayol. The main goal of this direction was to formulate general principles work of the organization.

A. Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that he considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions.

14 principles of management (according to A. Fayol).

1. Division of labor. Its goal is to perform work that is larger in volume and better in quality, all other things being equal. This is achieved by reducing goals.

2. Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its opposite. Where authority is given, responsibility arises.

3. Discipline. Discipline is one of the tasks of a leader. Discipline involves the fair application of sanctions.

4. Unity of command. An employee should receive orders from only one superior.

5. Unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader.

6. Subordination of personal interests to general ones. The interests of one employee should not prevail over the interests of the organization.

7. Staff remuneration. Workers must receive fair pay for their service.

8. Centralization. It is a way of organizing individual groups towards a common goal and plan. It depends on the operating conditions of the organization, but in some cases division of labor is necessary. Centralization is the fair course of things. It is important to consider the issue of the relationship between centralization and decentralization.

9. Scalar goal. This is a hierarchy of leadership positions.

10. Order. This is the arrangement of everything in its place.

11. Justice. This is a combination of kindness and justice in running an organization.

12. Stability of the workplace for staff. High staff turnover reduces the effectiveness of the organization.

13. Initiative. This is the development of a plan and its implementation.

14. Corporate spirit. Union is strength. It is the result of the interconnected work of personnel.

The “school of human relations” occupies a special place in the development of management. The emergence of this school was associated with the shortcomings of the classical approach, which did not highlight the psychological problems of management. E. Mayo showed in practice that relationships in a group of workers can surpass many of the efforts of managers in increasing labor productivity without financial investment.

The School of Human Relations was essentially psychological school, within which it was recommended to use such psychological means as responsibility, communication, a good psychological climate in small groups, etc. The main emphasis in the work carried out by E. Mayo and his colleagues was on the features of social interaction, motivation, authority, power, communications , leadership and other phenomena.

In management, there are two types of division of labor: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal division of labor may not be evident in small organizations.

Inside large organizations, which have a complex structure, there are various “horizontal” divisions, for example, departments, services, sections, workshops, etc.

The horizontal nature of the division of labor is characterized by the placement of managers in various divisions of the organization. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that horizontally divided work must be coordinated.

Along with the horizontal division of labor, there can also be a vertical division of labor. The main purpose of this type of division of labor is to coordinate the actions of people united general structure given organization to achieve common goals. To more clearly understand the main levels of management, let’s imagine them in the form of a pyramid.

The vertical deployment of the division of labor, in which a superior manager coordinates the work of subordinate managers, contributes to the formation of different levels of management.

At the same time, the name of the position held by a particular manager makes it possible to determine at what level of management this manager is located. For example, if a manager holds the position of site foreman, then we can say with confidence that this is a lower-level manager.

The size of an organization is one of the most important factors that determines the number of levels of management. All levels of management within organizations are usually divided into three main categories:

1) institutional level;

2) management level;

c) technical level.

At the institutional level, strategic, i.e. perspective, plans and goals.

The institutional level of organization management is the smallest in comparison with other levels. The most common positions of senior management are president, vice president, and chairman of the board of directors of companies. Among civil servants these are ministers, in the army they are generals, etc.

Senior managers are the persons responsible for making the most important organizational decisions. Their work is very stressful and intense. Managers of this rank are constantly busy searching for new information that is directly related to the activities of the entire company.

The peculiarity of the work of senior managers is also characterized by the fact that it does not have clear boundaries while it exists this organization. psychology management conflict incident

Middle management managers are subordinate to senior management managers, coordinating and monitoring the work of lower (technical) level managers. If the organization has a large branched structure, then middle managers are divided into two additional levels (the upper level of middle management and the lower level of middle management).

The most typical positions of middle management are: head of department (if we are talking about business), dean (in a higher educational institution), head of a sector (in a research institute), etc. In many organizations, middle management managers take part in decision making and prepare information for decisions made by senior managers.

Lower-level management managers monitor the implementation of production tasks. This is the organizational level directly above the workers or members of the unskilled labor force. Low-level managers perform very stressful jobs with a wide variety of activities. They have to move from one task to another.

2. Social psychological problems in the team

IN psychologically conflict can be considered as a collision of incompatible, oppositely directed tendencies in a person’s consciousness, in interpersonal or intergroup relations, associated with acute negative experiences. Let's note the most important points this definition. Firstly, by conflict we mean those interactions and relationships that are based on incompatible interests, needs or values and their simultaneous satisfaction is impossible.

Secondly, we can distinguish intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup conflict, depending on the space in which objective contradictions arose and are developing. Thirdly, psychologically, the conflict is accompanied by negative emotional states for its participants, complicating the already difficult situation of objective contradiction.

Types of conflict

There are four main types of conflict:

intrapersonal conflict,

interpersonal conflict,

conflict between individual and group

intergroup conflict.

Intrapersonal conflict. Its potential dysfunctional consequences are similar to those of other types of conflict. It can take various forms. One of the most common forms is role conflict, when conflicting demands are placed on one person regarding what the result of his work should be.

Intrapersonal conflict can arise as a result of job demands that are inconsistent with personal needs or values. Conflict can also be a response to work overload or underload. Research shows that such intrapersonal conflict is associated with low job satisfaction, low self-confidence and organizational confidence, and stress.

Interpersonal conflict. This type of conflict is the most common. It manifests itself in different ways in organizations. Most often, this is a struggle among managers over limited resources, capital or work environment, time to use equipment, or approval of a project.

Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities. People with different personality traits, views and values are sometimes simply unable to get along with each other. As a rule, the views and goals of such people differ radically.

Conflict between the individual and the group. In order to be accepted by an informal group and thereby satisfy his social needs, a person must comply with the norms of behavior and performance established by the group. Therefore, if the group's expectations are in conflict with the individual's expectations, conflict may arise.

Conflict may arise between an individual and a group if that individual takes a position different from that of the group.

A similar conflict may arise due to job responsibilities manager: between the need to ensure adequate performance and comply with the rules and procedures of the organization. The manager may be forced to take disciplinary action, which may have an impact

Intergroup conflict

1. Conflicts can arise in the interaction of stable micro-groups within a given group. Such groups, as a rule, exist within any small social community; their number ranges from two to 6 - 8 people, with mini-groups of 3 people most often appearing. More numerous subgroups, as a rule, are not very stable. Mini-groups play a big role in the life of the group as a whole. Their relationships influence the general climate of the group and productivity. It is within them that the norms and rules of group life are “tested”, and it is the mini-group that, as a rule, initiates changes in these rules. In principle, we can say that a person himself very rarely acts in his small group. As a rule, he relies on a micro-group, depends on it and focuses on it as an expert when developing one or another strategy for his command. “Newbie” entering a new social environment As a rule, first of all, he is faced with the task of choosing a target group that would accept him and approve of his behavior. The leader in his activities must also act with an eye on the reaction of mini-groups, especially those of them that occupy dominant positions.

Sometimes in a group it is possible to identify the “source” of intergroup conflicts - one person or a stable couple who have established conflicting relationships with representatives of other micro-groups. Most likely, in these conflictual relationships they will be supported by their mini-community, and a source of intragroup conflict will arise.

2. Conflicts can also arise as a result of the orientation of certain, primarily high-status, group members towards an external reference group that opposes this group or its leader in its goals or values. IN in this case a person is, as it were, the bearer of a contradictory system of requirements and norms, which can provoke dissatisfaction with the leader or other group members and incite intra-group conflict.

3. A conflict situation may arise in the interaction of a manager with a certain informal group that does not agree with the tasks or management style implemented by the manager. It is interesting to note that conflicts of this kind do not often begin as group conflicts. In the first stages of an exchange of conflicting actions, the participants may appear to be the leader and an individual member of the group. However, it is extremely rare for a person to decide on a conflict within the group of his permanent membership, not being confident in the support of the reference micro-group. As a result, any interpersonal conflict in a small group, including with the leader, quickly becomes a group conflict.

4. Conflict can also arise as a result of a breakdown in relations within a subgroup. If the remaining members of the group do not join the conflict, it will end with a partial restructuring of informal connections in the group, since members of the disintegrated group will have to find their place in other communities. Otherwise, there will be a significant change in the group as a whole with respect to its status and leadership hierarchies.

5. Normative group conflicts are possible. They are associated with the phenomenon of group pressure from the majority on a minority that does not want to accept the norms and values of the majority.

6. Conflicts between leaders are typical for group activities.

7. Finally, conflicts between the informal leader and the group leader are very common.

In social psychology, when analyzing conflicts, it is customary to discuss the causes of conflicts, their structure, dynamics of development and functions.

Structure and dynamics of conflicts

The psychological structure of conflict can be described using two the most important concepts: conflict situation and incident.

A conflict situation is the objective basis of a conflict, which records the emergence of a real contradiction in the interests and needs of the parties. In fact, this is not the conflict itself, since the existing objective contradiction may not be recognized by the participants in the interaction for some time.

The conflict situation has a very specific structure:

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As can be seen from the diagram, in an objective conflict situation there is an object of conflict - a real or ideal object that is the cause of the dispute and parties to the conflict or its participants, which can be individuals or groups of people. It is typical for the parties to have an external and internal position in the conflict. An external position is the motivation for participation in a conflict that is openly presented by the parties to their opponents (as participants in conflict interactions are most often called). It may or may not coincide with the internal position, which is a set of those true interests, motives and values that force a person or group to engage in conflict. Let us note that the internal position is often hidden not only from opponents and observers, but also from the subject himself, since it is unconscious.

As an example of such a discrepancy between internal and external positions, one can cite a typical conflict between a teenager and an adult, in which behind the outwardly aggressive position of a child, as a rule, there is a need for recognition, respect, the need to maintain the significance of his “I”, which is unconscious to him.

The conflict becomes a psychological reality for the participants from the moment the incident occurs. An incident is a situation of interaction that allows its participants to realize the presence of an objective contradiction in their interests and goals. That is, an incident is an awareness of a conflict situation. It can flow into various forms. First of all, a distinction is made between a hidden and an open incident. In its first form, the incident unfolds at the level of the participants’ awareness of the conflict nature of what is happening, but may not manifest itself in any way in their real relationships and reactions. An open incident unfolds as a series of conflicting actions of participants in relation to each other.

The dynamics of the conflict, that is, the patterns of its development are in full accordance with its structure. There are 4 main stages of conflict development:

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Thus, a conflict arises with the appearance of an objective contradiction in the goals and interests of the participants, becomes a psychological reality for them after realizing the contradiction in a real incident, goes through the stage of conflict actions and comes to a certain resolution.

The two intermediate stages are optional. Thus, a conflict may objectively arise, but remain unconscious until the conflict situation itself disappears. The conflict can find resolution at the stage of awareness, without moving to action. However, in reality, most socio-psychological conflicts in one form or another go through all the main stages. Let us turn to the analysis of the stage of conflict actions.

At the stage of conflict actions occurs further development all conflict structures. The object of the conflict, as a rule, expands due to the “drawing” of nearby areas of relationships into the conflict (for example, a conflict from the business sphere moves into a personal one; the area of divergence of opinions seems to its participants much wider than at the beginning). The parties to the conflict also change. In particular, they change their status in relation to the opponent (attempts to put pressure on the official line, through lawyers, the court, the public) and attract sympathizers to their side, due to which an interpersonal conflict very often turns into an intergroup conflict.

Characteristics of conflict outcomes

The outcomes of the conflict (forms of its resolution) are very diverse. We can talk about two main ways to resolve a conflict: through the removal of an incident and through the resolution of an objective conflict situation.

Removing an incident is an attempt to extinguish the conflict, either by transferring it to the stage of awareness (without conflict actions) or to the stage of an unconscious conflict situation. We list the main methods:

1. Ensuring that one of the parties wins. In this case, the conflict is resolved completely if the losing party accepted its defeat, which is extremely rare in everyday practice. The victory of one side is always a temporary state that lasts until the next serious incident.

2. Removing the conflict with the help of lies, which transfers the Conflict into an unconscious form and gives the parties a delay in solving their problems.

More radical possibilities for conflict resolution involve ways to resolve the conflict situation itself:

1. Complete physical or functional separation of participants. In this case, the very basis for conflict really disappears, but conflictual relations between former opponents can persist for a very long time, since they have not received their resolution. In addition, such a path can rarely be implemented in real practice. For example, in a flurry it is associated for a teacher with a transition to a new place of work, a change in the nature of the work, and for a student - with a transition to another school, adaptation to a new group.

2. Internal restructuring of the image of the situation. The meaning of this measure is to change the internal system of values and interests of the participants in the interaction, as a result of which the object of the conflict itself pales in their eyes or the relationship with the opponent acquires personal significance. Such work is psychologically very complex, often requiring help from a specialist - a psychologist, however, it is this path that can lead to a constructive resolution of marital or family conflicts.

3. Conflict resolution through confrontation to cooperation. In its content it is close to the previous one, but, as a rule, concerns business conflicts that do not affect the deep relationships of people, but relate to their social or material interests. Such conflicts can be resolved through specially organized work to find common interests and goals, by narrowing the area of disagreement to a minimum and concluding cooperation agreements. A major role in resolving such conflicts is played by the participation of a mediator - a person with special skills in negotiations and dispute resolution.

Causes of the conflict

Resource distribution. Management must decide how to allocate materials, human resources, and finances among various groups to most effectively achieve the organization's goals. It doesn't matter what the decision concerns - people always want to get more, not less. Thus, the need to share resources almost inevitably leads to various types of conflict.

Task interdependence. The potential for conflict exists whenever one person or group is dependent on another person or group to complete a task. Since all organizations are systems composed of interdependent elements, if one unit or person is not performing adequately, task interdependence can cause conflict.

Differences in goals. The potential for conflict increases as organizations become more specialized and divided into departments. Since specialized units themselves formulate their goals and can pay more attention to achieving them than the goals of the entire organization.

Differences in ideas and values are a very common cause of conflict. The idea of a certain situation depends on the desire to achieve a certain goal. Instead of evaluating a situation, people may consider only those views, alternatives, and aspects of the situation that they believe are favorable to their group and personal needs.

Differences in behavior and life experiences can increase the potential for conflict. Research shows that people with personality traits that make them highest degree authoritarian, dogmatic, indifferent to such a concept as self-respect, are more likely to come into conflict. Other studies have shown that differences in life experiences, values, education, seniority, age, and social characteristics reduce the degree of mutual understanding and cooperation between representatives of different departments.

Poor communication is both a cause and a consequence of conflict. Poor communication of information can act as a catalyst for conflict, preventing individuals or groups from understanding the situation or the points of view of others. Other common communication problems that cause conflict are ambiguous quality criteria, failure to accurately define the job responsibilities and functions of all employees and departments, and the presentation of mutually exclusive job requirements. These problems may arise or be exacerbated by the failure of managers to develop and communicate accurate job descriptions to subordinates.

Functions of conflict

IN everyday life people have developed quite tough and one-to-one relationship to conflicts as negative phenomena. The emergence of a conflict is seen as a symptom of troubled relations, and all the forces of the interested parties are directed to quickly “covering it up”, often without a serious preliminary analysis of the causes of the emerging contradictions, a temporary state that persists until the next serious incident. In addition, it is completely inevitable in one form or another, and this is connected both with the objective difficulty of organizing such management that would allow resolving objective conflict situations at the stage of their occurrence, and with subjective reasons: living people function in a group people for whom it is almost natural to resolve many contradictions through conflict.

However, along with the so-called destructive functions (destruction of joint activities, deterioration or disintegration of relationships, deterioration in the well-being of participants, etc.), the conflict performs a significant constructive task, since it is a reflection of objective processes occurring in various interpersonal interactions. In general, the constructive function of conflict boils down to the following:

Conflict is an important source of development of the individual, group, and interpersonal relationships, allowing them to rise to the top. new heights, expand and change the scope and methods of interaction;

Through open confrontation, conflict frees the group from factors that undermine it, reduces the likelihood of stagnation and decline of the group;

Conflict contributes to the development of mutual understanding between the participants in the interaction.

Conclusion

In the process of carrying out the work, I found out that management psychology is an independent interdisciplinary branch of science. It is of an applied nature and closely interacts with branches of psychology: general, social, engineering psychology.

Management psychology studies the basic functions of management: planning, organization, motivation, control.

The main subject of management in an organization is the leader (manager). The main objects of management are the individual performer, a small (working) group, and the organization as a whole. The goal of the organization is to achieve success in solving problems and tasks that are significant for the organization. Management is a system of coordinated activities through which organizational goals are achieved.

The main concepts of management psychology are: organization; management (management); manager is a person responsible for setting goals, making decisions and their implementation, responsible for the activities of staff and small groups.

Organization, as a concept, is used in management psychology in two main senses:

a) a group of people who consciously and voluntarily unite within a certain structure to achieve common goals for these individuals;

b) the management function of coordinating the activities of its individual units.

The most typical for organizations are the institutional, managerial and technical levels of management.

In accordance with the management levels available in the organization, leaders (managers) are distinguished: senior (institutional) level; middle management and lower management. The structure of an organization is determined by the number of management levels.

All conflicts have several causes. The main causes of conflict are limited resources to be shared, interdependence of tasks, differences in goals, differences in ideas and values, differences in behavior, level of education, and bad ones. Management must decide how to allocate materials, human resources, and finances among various groups to most effectively achieve the organization's goals. It doesn't matter what the decision concerns - people always want to get more, not less. Thus, the need to share resources almost inevitably leads to various types of conflict.

List of used literature

1. Zinoviev F.V. and others. The art of managing: Teaching. - Serafimovich, 2002

2. Kochetkova A.I. Fundamentals of modern personnel management. - M:, 2000

3. Krichevsky R.L. If you are a leader... - M, 2003

4. Ladanov I.D. Psychology of management market structures. - M, 2000

5. Psychology of influence. Reader. - St. Petersburg, 2000

6.Rozanova V.A. Psychology of management: Proc. village - M., 2000

7. Samoutkin A.I. , Samoutkina I.V. Business psychology: Proc. village - M., 2003

8. Semyonova A.K., Maslova E.L. Psychology and ethics of management and business. - M,. 2006

9. Chaldin R. Psychology of influence. - St. Petersburg, 2000

10. Shvadbe V.M. Personality, career, success. - M, 2003

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Managerial psychology is a field of psychological science that studies psychological patterns in managerial work. This is the structure, features and specificity, ways of using psychological aspects to solve various managerial problems. Every day a leader is faced with a variety of tasks, tasks, and problems. It’s not at all difficult to get lost in this whirlpool, but difficulties, as you know, often await you at the most inopportune moment, and you need to constantly be prepared to resolve them.

It is noteworthy that there is absolutely no system in the occurrence and unforeseen circumstances, however, if you set a goal, you can develop an algorithm of actions for the case when something goes wrong. Indirectly, this includes drawing up a work plan, keeping all current affairs in order, so that in the event of an undesirable situation, hitches do not arise that could be foreseen and prevented.

The difficulty of a manager’s work, by and large, lies in the fact that he constantly needs to organize and systematize the moments and actions that are necessary for successful work companies. The manager understands that he has to make many decisions every day, and they must turn out to be correct. Psychologically it is very difficult.

Managerial psychology teaches one to master one’s activities and realize oneself as a part of it. The activity of each person consists of small components, and they need to be known perfectly, including their psychological structure. A leader who is well acquainted with the main components of psychology has a number of advantages. For example, he sees the main thing that needs to be done to achieve a particular goal. He also knows how close the goal is and how much time is left until it is reached. An experienced manager can adjust the course of solving a problem and get the desired result in the most beneficial way for himself and the company.

Psychology involves the following components:

Clearly setting clear goals, ideally for all employees. Each employee must clearly understand what specific contribution he must make to achieve the common goal.
Motivation is something without which ordinary employees will not make efforts to solve any problem. The fact is that usually any company is the business of the manager, his ambitions, and for most employees, a way to earn money.
Delegation of authority - transfer of control over the progress of task execution in each department.
Reflection.

Managerial psychology teaches how to create conditions for the subordination of the main components of a manager’s activity. Such conditions can be expressed in terms of requirements for the manager's skills.

Control is perhaps the main point that managerial psychology requires. Moreover, you need to control both the work of all employees and your own activities.

Goal setting is an understanding of the psychological weight of goals, the ability to clearly formulate and correctly convey upcoming goals to employees, the ability to effectively plan one’s activities and the implementation of this useful skill in the enterprise.

Motivation - ideally, you need to know the character and characteristics of your subordinates, be aware of their lives in order to determine what is interesting to everyone and what can captivate a group of workers.

Statement of the task - you need to know what is needed for fruitful work, what may be needed in the future and how much the previously completed tasks helped. It is also necessary to determine the stages of work and their time frames, to know how the achieved goal is consistent with other possible ones, and how it will fit into the work of the company.

Delegation involves transferring some powers to local managers, but not all powers can be entrusted to others.

Thus, the activities of a manager require a wide base of knowledge and skills and their constant improvement.

Plan:

1. Management psychology as a branch of practical psychology. 2. The subject of modern management psychology.3. Methods of modern management psychology, their brief description.

1. Modern management psychology is a relatively young and fairly rapidly developing branch of applied psychology.

Management psychology as a specific branch of practical psychology arose almost simultaneously with the emergence of the profession manager and professional managers. It appeared in response to a specific social order of industrial society. This social order can be expressed in the form of the following questions:

How to make management effective?

How to make maximum use of human resources in production without coercion and pressure on people?

What is the best way to build and organize a team management system?

We can say that the psychology of management arose in a free society (unfree societies with a harsh system of coercion in the form of carrots and sticks do not need it), for free people striving to fully reveal their own capabilities with maximum benefit for themselves and for the business.

Thus, management psychology from the very beginning was focused not on creating a theory, but on solving specific practical problems. The same can be said another way - modern management psychology is built on the understanding that the use of the human factor in production, the human dimension in management, is economically beneficial. It doesn’t matter how it looks in theory, it is important that it works in practice and is beneficial - such a very pragmatic and, of course, not indisputable view predetermined the development of management psychology as a branch of practical psychology. The joke of professional psychologists: “We have many different means for solving problems - something helps someone from time to time” has acquired real meaning.

The very subject of psychology is man and his psyche, inner world, behavior, activity, communication are an ambiguous and multifaceted phenomenon. Today we hardly understand human nature better (even despite attempts to artificially change it) than the ancient Greek philosophers. It remains as much a mystery as the origin of life. A person with his inner world is a very complex being, roughly speaking, one that does not fit into theoretical concepts and constructions. This deprives us of the opportunity to obtain any definitive answers to the questions posed. So the lack of a single view, a single concept of man in psychology is caused by completely objective reasons.

2. Subject of management psychology

Management psychology is a branch of practical psychology. The subject of practical psychology is problem of human relationships. Consequently, modern management psychology examines the problems of human relationships and interactions from the point of view of management situations, and this is the specificity of its subject. Let us reveal this position in more detail and consider which specific problems of the human dimension in management are in the field of view of management psychology.

Let's understand the basic concepts of this discipline and, first of all, the category of “management”, which is very ambiguously understood in everyday life. Management is the process of purposeful influence of the subject of management on the system (object of management) in the interests of its effective functioning and development. Management as a function of production: a special specific activity, a special function of production that arose in the process of division of labor. Management as a science is a specific independent area of human knowledge about the laws of production organization with the aim of increasing its productivity. "Manage- means leading to the success of others” (Siegert V., Lang L.). "Control there is the motivation of other people to work” (Iacocca L.). "Manage- means leading employees to success and self-realization” (Woodcock M., Francis D.). "Control is doing something with the hands of other people" (Peters T., Waterman T. V)

Other important categories of this science are: organization, system. In management psychology, an organization is usually understood as an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules. A system is a set of elements that are connected to each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity.

The main sections of management psychology are:

The personality of a manager, his self-improvement and self-development.

Organization of management activities from the point of view of its psychological effectiveness.

Manager's communication skills.

Conflicts in the production team and the role of the manager in overcoming them.

Management psychology examines these problems from a practical point of view. Let's get to know them better.

Rice. 1. Roles performed and categories of managers

Management psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the psychological patterns of management activity.

Management is a set of system of coordinated activities aimed at achieving significant goals of the organization.

Main control functions: planning, organization, motivation, control.

The purpose of management psychology- analysis of psychological conditions and characteristics of management activities in order to increase the efficiency and quality of work in the management system.

Object of management psychology- is a community of people united in one or another social organization.

Subject of management psychology- development of psychological aspects of human activity, group and organization as a whole.

In the role subjects of management acts as a set of officials hierarchically united in different groups.

A manager is a subject who performs management functions.

Management psychology is associated with the following branches of psychology: general, social, engineering, economic, as well as ergonomics, philosophy, sociology of organizations, etc.

General psychology- a branch of psychology that theoretically and experimentally studies the patterns of the emergence and functioning of mental reflection in the activities of humans and animals. Sometimes general psychology is understood as the study of mental processes (cognitive, emotional, volitional), mental properties (abilities, character, temperament) and mental states in a normal adult (stress, affect).

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with the study of patterns of behavior and activity of people caused by their inclusion in social groups, and also psychological characteristics the groups themselves (according to G.M. Andreeva).

Engineering psychology (from the French ingenieur - engineer, specialist in the field of technology) is a science that studies the processes and means of interaction between man and machine.

Economic psychology representing interdisciplinary knowledge about man and human relationships that develop in the process economic activity, uses theoretical principles and methods of various branches of psychology and economic disciplines, as well as sociology, biology, anthropology, philosophy, studying aspects of economic behavior, ranging from the economic activity of the individual to economic policy countries Economic psychology differs from the economic sciences in that the subject of its research is not economic processes themselves, but primarily the people participating in them.

Ergonomics (from the Greek ergon - work and nomos - law) is the science of adapting job responsibilities, workplaces, equipment and computer programs for the safest and most effective work of a worker, based on the physical and mental characteristics of the human body.

A broader definition of ergonomics, adopted in 2010 by the International Ergonomics Association (IEA), is: “ Scientific discipline, the study of the interaction between humans and other system elements, and the field of application of the theory, principles, data and methods of this science to promote human well-being and optimize overall system performance.”

Philosophy (gr. philio - love, sophia - wisdom) - a system of ideas, views on the world and the place of man in it; the science of the most general laws development of nature, society and thinking.

Sociology of organizations- a branch of sociology that studies social patterns and mechanisms of functioning and development of organizations as complex multi-purpose systems of social relations.

Management is an ancient field of human activity, as it has existed since people live and work in communities; its origins lie in the works of philosophers. But until the beginning of the 20th century, management was not considered an independent field scientific research with its own methodological apparatus.

Frederick Winslow Taylor(1856-1915) was born into the family of a lawyer. He was educated in France and Germany, then at the F. Exter Academy in New Hampshire. In 1874 he graduated from Harvard Law College. In 1878, at the peak of the economic depression, he received a job as a laborer at the Midval steel mill.

From 1882 to 1883 he worked as head of mechanical workshops. At the same time, he received a technical education (degree of mechanical engineer, Stevens Institute of Technology, 1883). In 1884, Taylor became chief engineer, the same year he first used a system of differential pay for labor productivity.

From 1890 to 1893, Taylor was the general manager of the Manufacturing Investment Company in Philadelphia and owned paper presses in Maine and Wisconsin, where he founded his own management consulting business, the first in management history.

In 1906 he becomes president American Society mechanical engineers, and in 1911 - established the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Management.

Since 1895, Taylor began his world-famous research on the scientific organization of labor. He patented about a hundred of his inventions and rationalizations.

With the advent of the book "Management" or "Factory Management" (1911) the basic principles of management work:

1. The management takes upon itself the development of a scientific foundation, replacing the old traditional and crudely practical methods, for each individual action in all the different varieties of labor used in the enterprise.

2. The management makes a careful selection of workers on the basis of scientifically established characteristics, and then trains, educates and develops each individually, while in the past the worker himself chose his specialty and trained as well as he could.

3. The management carries out cordial cooperation with the workers towards achieving the conformity of all individual branches of production with the scientific principles that were previously developed by it.

4. An almost equal distribution of labor and responsibility is established between the enterprise administration and workers. Management takes upon itself all those branches of labor for which it is better equipped than the workers, whereas in the past almost the entire labor and most of the responsibilities were entrusted to the workers.

This combination of worker initiative, coupled with new types of functions carried out by the management of the enterprise, is what makes the scientific organization so significantly superior in productivity to all older systems.

Henri Fayol (1841-1925) - French mining engineer, manager of a mining and metallurgical company, management theorist and practitioner, founder of the administrative (classical) school of management.

In the book “General and Industrial Management”, published in the 20s, he proposed the following system of management principles:

1. Division of labor- delegating individual operations to employees and, as a result, increasing labor productivity, due to the fact that personnel have the opportunity to concentrate their attention.

2. Authority and Responsibility- the right to give orders must be balanced with responsibility for their consequences.

3. Discipline - the need to comply with the rules established within the organization. To maintain discipline, it is necessary to have leaders at all levels who are capable of applying adequate sanctions to those who violate order.

4. Unity of command - each employee reports to only one manager and receives orders only from him.

5. Unity of action- a group of workers should work only according to a single plan aimed at achieving one goal.

6. Subordination of interests- the interests of an employee or group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the organization.

7. Remuneration - the presence of fair methods of stimulating employees.

8. Centralization is the natural order in an organization that has a control center. The degree of centralization depends on each specific case.

9. Hierarchy - an organizational hierarchy that should not be violated, but which, to the extent possible, must be reduced to avoid harm.

10. Order - the workplace for each employee, as well as each employee at his own workplace.

11. Justice - respect and fairness of the administration towards subordinates, a combination of kindness and justice.

12. Staff stability- staff turnover weakens the organization and is a consequence of poor management.

13. Initiative - providing employees with the opportunity to demonstrate personal initiative.

14. Corporate spirit- cohesion of workers, unity of strength.

Thanks to A. Fayol, a new branch of science arose - “management psychology.”

In the 30s management theorists actively turn to the motivational factors of human labor activity.

George Elton Mayo(1880-1949) - Australian-American researcher of problems of organizational behavior and management in industrial organizations, one of the founders of the American doctrine of “human relations”.

He led a number of research projects and experiments, including the Hawthorne one. He founded the movement “for the development of human relations” and is one of the founders of the school of human relations, from the standpoint of which an industrial organization is viewed as a social organism, and the people working in it are members of this social system, bearers of motivational, personal, individual psychological qualities .

E. Mayo's contribution to the theory and practice of management:

1. Increased attention to human social needs.

2. Refusal of over-specialization of labor.

3. Refusal of the need for hierarchy of power within the organization.

4. Recognition of the role of informal relationships between people within enterprises.

5. Development of methods for studying formal and informal groups within organizations.

American scientist Chester Irving Barnard(1886-1961) in 30-40 years. gave a definition of the organization and the requirements for it.

An organization is a structure within which certain activities are carried out to achieve specific significant goals.

Requirements for the organization:

The presence of two or more people who consider themselves members of this group;

The presence of at least one goal as an end state or result, which is accepted as common to all members of this group;

The existence of group members who consciously and intentionally work together to achieve a goal that is meaningful to them all.

He also highlighted the functions of managers:

The Art of Decision Making;

Setting goals based on foreseeing the future;

A clear understanding of the communications system, including the organization chart and the structure of management personnel;

Creating organizational morale.

Barnard great attention devoted to the analysis of the interaction of formal and informal structures within the organization.

He considered motivation to be one of the main factors in production, and that the essence of the relationship between a person and an organization lies in cooperation.

Formulated the principles of communication within the organization (mainly regarding formal relations).

Classified a person as a strategic factor of the organization.

American scientist Douglas McGregor(1906-1964) published the book “The Human Side of Enterprise” in 1960.

D. McGregor identified means of monitoring the behavior of people in an organization:

1) transition from physical violence to reliance on formal authority;

2) transition from formal power to leadership.

D. McGregor called leadership social attitude, which has several variables:

Characteristics of a leader;

The positions and needs of his followers;

Characteristics of the organization (such as purpose, structure, nature of tasks to be performed);

Social, economic and political environment.

D. McGregor argued that there are two types of personnel management, the first of which is based on “Theory X”, and the second on “Theory Y”. This is discussed in more detail in § 2.3.

Representatives of the “human relations” school believed that a truly democratic organization requires close interaction between individuals and groups.

The following methodological approaches are distinguished: systemic, situational, process.

By using systematic approach the organization is considered as a single whole with all its most complex connections and relationships, as well as the coordination of the activities of all its subsystems.

The smooth functioning of an organization is influenced by many factors, the most important of which are psychological and socio-psychological phenomena.

In relation to management problems in a systems approach, the most important is to perform the following actions:

a) identification of the research object;

b) determining the hierarchy of system goals and its reflection in the goals of subsystems;

c) a description of the influence of each of the subsystems on the system in which they operate and the reverse influence of the system on the objects of the subsystem;

d) identifying possible ways to improve the activities of the subsystems being studied.

When using situational approach managers proceed from the fact that a specific situation is the basis for the application of possible management methods. At the same time, the most effective method is considered to be the one that best suits the given management situation.

The situational approach is the concept that the optimal solution is a function of environmental factors in the organization itself (internal variables) and in the environment (external variables). This approach concentrates the main provisions of well-known management schools by combining certain techniques.

Process approach is based on the concept that management is a continuous chain of management functions carried out as a result of performing interrelated actions.

There are several classifications of management levels.

In the direction of influence.

Horizontal division of labor- involves the interaction of subjects equal in hierarchical power. It may not appear in small organizations when managers are assigned to various divisions of the organization. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that horizontally divided work must be coordinated.

Vertical division of labor- involves the interaction of subjects of vertical subordination: manager - subordinate, enterprise - higher organization.

According to the function performed by the head in the organization(highlighted by Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)).

On institutional level- are mainly engaged in developing long-term (long-term) plans, formulating goals, adapting the organization to various kinds of changes, managing the relationship between the organization and the external environment, as well as the society in which this organization exists and operates.

On managerial level- are engaged in management and coordination within the organization, they coordinate various forms of activity and efforts of various divisions of the organization.

On technical level- are engaged in the daily operations and activities necessary to ensure efficient work without disruptions in the production of products or provision of services.

Senior managers are the persons responsible for making the most important organizational decisions as a whole or for the main part of the organization.

Even in the largest organizations there are only a few senior executives. Typical senior executive positions in business are Chairman of the Board, President, Vice President of a corporation, Treasurer of a corporation, etc.

Middle management managers subordinate to senior managers, coordinating and monitoring the work of lower-level managers. A middle manager often heads a large division or department in an organization. The nature of his work is determined to a greater extent by the content of the work of the unit than of the organization as a whole. They prepare information for decisions made by senior managers and transfer these decisions, usually after transforming them in a technologically convenient form, in the form of specific tasks to lower-level line managers.

Lower management managers exercise control over the implementation of production tasks. Managers at this level are often responsible for the direct use of resources allocated to them, such as raw materials and equipment. Typical positions at this level: foreman, shift foreman, department head, head of the management department at a business school. Most of the managers in general are lower-level managers.

Roles are most clearly manifested in the joint work of individuals organized in groups, and the authority, respect and recognition of a given individual depend on how responsibilities are performed.

The manager performs many roles that correspond to his real position, i.e. status, in the organization.

Highest level of management.

Choosing the main direction of the organization’s activities, taking into account external and internal factors of work. Setting strategic goals, organizing strategic planning, forecasting the company’s performance for a certain period of time. Anticipating future company performance results. Responsibility for all tasks and decisions taken in the organization. Full knowledge of problems, means of solving them, competitors and market conditions. Realization of power and authority in accordance with existing status and roles.

Middle level of management.

Knowledge complete information about the tasks of this level. Management of small (working) groups. Responsibility for the activities of these groups. Exercising leadership functions. Management of group-dynamic processes. Responsible behavior for group cohesion, group unity, group motivation, acceptance of organizational goals by all group members, formation of value-oriented unity. Motivating individual employees as well as the entire group. Participation in all management functions. Fighting conflicts.

Grassroots level of management.

Operational management of production operations. Direct contact with each member of the working group. Implementing individual motivation for each employee. Constant communication with group members. Organization of performers' activities. Monitoring the completion of tasks. Resolution of business and interpersonal conflicts. Solving current management problems. Provide feedback to staff.

The effectiveness of management activities directly interacts with three parameters:

1) a sense of likelihood of success;

2) the motive of behavior as a personal factor;

3) the consequences of success or failure in solving management situations.

Managers, like subordinates who have positive motivation to work, want to receive satisfaction from work.