Nicholas 1 foreign policy briefly. Historical portrait of Nicholas I: foreign and domestic policy

25.09.2019

1. Foreign policy during the reign of Nicholas I was characterized by periodic wars with other countries, expansion of Russian territory, and repressions against conquered peoples.

The largest foreign policy events of the era of Nicholas I:

- Russian-Turkish war of 1828 - 1829, conclusion of the Unkar-Iklesi peace treaty, beneficial for Russia;

— diplomatic negotiations, signing of the London Convention of 1841 on the Straits;

- further expansion into Poland, suppression of the Polish uprising of 1831;

- war with Iran in 1828;

- Caucasian War 1828 - 1859, conquest of the Caucasus;

— Crimean War 1853 - 1856

2. Russian-Turkish war 1828 - 1829 became one of the most successful wars that Russia waged against Turkey. The prerequisites for the war were Russia's solidarity with the Greek uprising of 1821 - 1827. and Russia's fulfillment of allied obligations to England and France. These countries went to war with Turkey in 1827 and sought autonomy for Greece. The war was fleeting - Russian troops carried out a rapid offensive on two fronts - in the Balkans and in the Caucasus (reaching Trebizond). Türkiye was forced to capitulate.

In 1829, the Treaty of Adrianople with Turkey was signed, according to which:

— Western Georgia, the entire Black Sea coast from Kuban to Adjara, went to Russia;

- the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits became free for the passage of Russian and foreign merchant ships, due to which Russia gained access to the Mediterranean Sea.

In 1833, the Unkar-Iklessi Treaty of Friendship was signed between Russia and Turkey, which confirmed the terms of the Adrianople Peace Treaty.

This was Russia's biggest success in this region since the war of 1768 - 1774, when Russia gained access to the northern part of the Black Sea.

3. Former allies of Russia - England, Austria and Prussia, who were dissatisfied with the sharp strengthening of Russia in the region and its growing influence on Turkey, began to exert strong diplomatic pressure on Russia in order to abandon a number of unilateral advantages of victory in the war of 1828 - 1829:

- in 1840 - 1841 negotiations were held in London;

— in 1841, the multilateral London Convention on the Regime of the Straits was signed;

- according to this convention, international control was established over the Bosporus and Dardanelles;

— The Black Sea was declared demilitarized - the passage through the straits of foreign military vessels, including Russians, was closed;

— Russia refused the Unkar-Iklessi peace treaty. The signing of the London Convention on the Straits affected the interests of Russia, which was very close to independently controlling the straits. At the same time, Russia sacrificed its national interests in order to maintain allied relations with England, Austria and Prussia, which were necessary to isolate revolutionary France.

4. In 1828, Russia waged a successful war against Iran, as a result of which:

- Azerbaijan, Nakhichevan and Armenia finally went to Russia;

— Dagestan and the North Caucasus fell into Russia’s zone of influence. The continuation of the wars with Turkey and Iran was the long Caucasian war, which Russia waged for more than 30 years and the goal of which was to conquer North Caucasus and the inclusion of the entire Caucasus region into Russia.

The main theater of military operations Caucasian war became Chechnya and Dagestan. The war initially did not go well for Russia - there was a consolidation of the mountain peoples. Particularly strong resistance to Russian troops was provided in the 1830s - 1840s, when Eta.1 Shamil was at the head of Chechnya and Dagestan. Shamil united Chechnya and Dagestan into a single state - the Imamate, introduced strict discipline, and gave the war a religious character - gazavat - a holy war against infidels. After more than 25 years of hostilities, Shamil’s state was defeated, and Shamil himself was captured in 1859 in the village of Gunib. The war waned and ended in 1864. As a result of this war, the entire Caucasus, including Chechnya and Dagestan, passed to Russia.

5. The government of Nicholas 1 also pursued a policy of national oppression in relation to Poland, which was finally annexed to Russia in 1795. Despite the fact that in 1815 Alexander I granted the Constitution to Poland, most Poles were acutely worried about Poland’s loss of independence. Discontent especially intensified after Nicholas I came to power in Russia and pursued his policy of total suppression of free thought. In 1831, a national liberation uprising broke out in Poland, which was brutally suppressed by tsarist troops. Repressions in Poland, as well as throughout the territory Russian Empire, intensified.

6. Despite Russia signing the London Convention of 1841, in the late 1840s - early 1850s. Relations between Russia and its former allies - Antlia, Austria and France, which again joined them, deteriorated significantly. The aggravation of relations was caused by the following reasons:

- Russia, as a result of the war of 1828 - 1829. having broken through into the Mediterranean, it became a serious trade competitor to England and France, who considered this region, especially the Middle East, to be theirs originally;

— with the support of Russia, the influence of Orthodoxy in the Middle East increased, which was not in the interests of Turkey;

- relations improved between England, France and Turkey, which sought revenge for defeat in the war of 1828 - 1829;

- former allies - England, Austria, Prussia, and France and Türkiye, who joined them, wanted the weakening of Russia. These contradictions ultimately caused the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856. - one of the most unsuccessful wars in Russian history.

7. The reason for the war was the occupation by Russia of the Danube principality - Silistria. In response to this, in 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia, and in 1854, England and France. Austria and Prussia took a tough anti-Russian diplomatic position, supporting the Anglo-Franco-Turkish alliance.

The war took place in two stages:

— 1853 - 1854 - fighting on the Danube;

— 1854 - 1856 - fighting in Crimea around Sevastopol - the main base of the Russian fleet on the Black Sea.

During the first stage, Russian troops were defeated on the Danube and were forced to leave Silistria and the region as a whole. At the second stage, the Anglo-French expeditionary force landed in the Crimea on September 8, 1854 and besieged Sevastopol. The heroic defense of besieged Sevastopol lasted about a year. During the defense, Russian troops under the command of V. Kornilov, P. Nakhimov and V. Istomin showed heroism and courage, but on August 27, 1855, Sevastopol was taken by Anglo-French troops.

8. On March 18, 1856, Russia was forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Paris, as a result of which:

— Russia was losing the mouth of the Danube;

— Russia was forbidden to interfere in the affairs of the Danube principalities - Moldova, Wallachia, and Turkey;

— Russia was losing the Kare fortress in the Caucasus;

— Sevastopol had to be demilitarized;

— Russia had to destroy a number of fortresses on the Black Sea coast;

— The Black Sea was declared neutral;

— Russia was obliged to reduce the Black Sea fleet. In addition, defeat in Crimean War 1853 - 1856:

— destroyed the entire system of Russian diplomatic victories achieved since 1829;

— temporarily removed Russia from the list of great maritime powers;

— put an end to Russia’s attempts to become a dominant power in the Black Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean;

— caused economic damage, since Russia was expelled as an economic partner from the Middle East and the Mediterranean;

9. The Crimean War demonstrated to the whole world the crisis of Nikolaev Russia:

- technical backwardness - lack of industrial development;

- the lack of modernity and ineffectiveness of serfdom and feudal orders;

- ineptitude of management.

The war undermined the health of Nicholas 1, who died in 1855, and became a symbol of the end of his 30-year era.

Domestic policy of Nicholas I

The years of the reign of Nicholas I are regarded as the “apogee of autocracy.” The government actively fought revolutionary movement in Russia Western Europe, mass popular unrest, dealt with advanced and progressive ideas and people. The main goal of the emperor's internal policy was to strengthen and protect the existing system. Realizing the need for broad reforms and fearing a new revolutionary surge, the emperor carried out a number of reforms that did not affect the foundations of the state structure. Hence the inconsistency and duality of the policies of Nicholas I: on the one hand, a broad political reaction, on the other, an awareness of the need to make concessions to the “spirit of the times.” In general, the policy of Nicholas I was conservative throughout his reign. The main directions of activity were: strengthening autocratic power; further bureaucratization and centralization of the country; work aimed at creating a police state. The key problem remained the peasant question. Understanding the need to abolish serfdom, Nicholas did not set himself the task of eliminating it.

In the second quarter of the XIX century, significant changes occurred in some European countries (general liberalization of the political system, entry of new social strata of society into the arena of political struggle). In Russia, these processes were significantly slowed down: the State Council lost its importance in resolving state issues; the system of ministries was actually replaced by His Imperial Majesty's Own Office (it became a government agency and was divided into departments - I department - the personal office of the emperor, II - codification of laws, III - department was in charge of the political police, IV - managed charitable institutions, etc.

In 1826, the III department of the chancellery was created, associated with the implementation of political investigation. His work was supervised by Count A.Kh. Benckendorf, infinitely devoted to Nicholas I. The country was enveloped in a network of agents and spies. In 1827, a corps of gendarmes was created and several gendarmerie districts were introduced. Thus, for virtually the first time in Russia, an effective police system arose, which made it possible to slow down the revolutionary movement and suppress dissent for a long time.

Upon ascending the throne, Nicholas I declared his intention to ensure the rule of law for the country. For this purpose, work was carried out to codify (streamline) Russian legislation. MM. Speransky, returned from exile, headed the activities of the II department of the chancellery. As a result, the “Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire” appeared in 45 volumes and the “Code of Current Laws” in 15 volumes.

Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century remained an agrarian country. Peasants made up the bulk of the population. It was the peasant question that was the main one and required an immediate solution. But the government limited itself to only half-measures aimed at mitigating serfdom. In 1841, a law was passed prohibiting the sale of peasants individually and without land; in 1843 - landless nobles were deprived of the right to acquire serfs; in 1842 the law on “obligated peasants” was passed, which developed the decree of 1803. A number of decrees of this period regulated relations between landowners and peasants; fixed the size of peasant plots and duties; determined the possible punishment. Thus, serfdom was not abolished, but the slave manifestations of serfdom were eliminated.

In 1837 - 1841 a reform of state peasants was carried out. It improved the legal and financial situation of state peasants, who made up about a third of the population. The created Ministry of State Property was supposed to take care of satisfying the economic and everyday needs of the subordinate peasants. At the same time, the reform increased bureaucratic pressure on the state village and minimized the activities of peasant self-government bodies (they became dependent on the local administration).

The sphere of education and enlightenment has developed quite contradictorily. On the one hand, the progressive development of the country required its improvement and expansion, on the other hand, the government tried in every possible way to establish strict control over it. In 1828, the Charter of lower and secondary educational institutions was approved. He consolidated a closed class system of education (parish schools for the lower strata of the population; district schools for townspeople of non-noble origin; gymnasiums for the children of nobles and officials). In 1835 it was introduced new charter, which stripped universities of much of their autonomy. Strict political control was established, clear regulation of university life was introduced, tuition fees were increased, student enrollment was reduced, and the teaching of state law and philosophy was abolished. The government's increased response to enlightenment and education occurred after the revolutionary upheavals that took place in Western Europe in 1848-1849. Relations with Western Europe were reduced, foreigners were prohibited from entering Russia, and Russians were prohibited from traveling abroad. The era of “censorship terror” has arrived. But life demanded further development of higher education. Despite the punitive measures taken by the government, previously closed educational establishments and new ones appeared, training specialists of a wide profile (technological, construction, surveying institutes, higher school of law, etc.).

The most important tool for ideological work with the people was Orthodox Church. Much attention was paid to the “purity of the Orthodox faith” and maintaining the state importance of the church.

Nicholas' foreign policy I .

The main directions of the foreign policy of the government of Nicholas I were: the fight against the revolutionary movement in Europe, the desire to seize Middle Eastern markets, the annexation of the Caspian coast to Russia and the solution of the eastern question, which meant dominance in Turkish affairs, establishing control in the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits and influence in the Balkans.

Russian-Iranian War 1826-1828 ended with the Peace of Turkmanchay, according to which eastern Armenia joined Russia. Russia also won the war with Turkey in 1828-1829, and according to the Treaty of Adrianople, Anapa, Poti, Akhaltsikhe and Alkhalkalaki went to it. In this situation, Russia's subjugation of the entire Caucasus became possible and inevitable.

The murid movement1 began in the 30s. led by Imam Shamil, who won a number of victories over Russian troops. In the territories of Dagestan and Chechnya, he created a state system - imamate - with a large army. But already at the end of the 40s. Signs of crisis began to appear in Shamil's state system. Tsarism took advantage of the economic and military weakening of the Imamate. The re-equipped and numerically increased Russian army went on the offensive. In 1859, the remnants of Shamil's army were finally defeated.

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed in 1864.

The contradictions between Russia and European countries after the signing in 1833 by Turkey and Russia of the Unkiyar-Isklessi Treaty, which established a defensive military alliance with the obligation of mutual military defense.

TO mid-19th V. The Eastern Question occupied a very important place in the foreign policy of European countries. France and England sought military and commercial priority in the Mediterranean; Austria - to the expansion of the territory of the Ottoman Empire; Russia - to the complete defeat of Turkey alone, access to the Mediterranean Sea, closing the entrance to the Black Sea to foreign fleets and increasing influence on the Slavic peoples of the Balkans. All this led to the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the crossing of Russian troops across the river. Prut and occupation of the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. In the fall of 1853, the Russian squadron under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimova (1802-1855) defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay. But the European powers did not intend to allow Russia to defeat Turkey. The English and French military squadrons entered the Golden Horn Bay. Russia was now forced to fight against England, France, and the Italian states of Piedmont and Sardinia. Military operations were transferred to Crimea. Russia's main naval base on the Black Sea, Sevastopol, was under siege. After 11 months of defense, Sevastopol fell.

On March 18, 1856, a peace was signed in Paris, according to which Russia ceded part of Bessarabia to Turkey and returned the Kars fortress. Russia was forbidden to have a navy on the Black Sea and to restore Sevastopol as a fortress.

The defeat of Russia showed the deep crisis of the autocratic-serf system, its backwardness from the advanced countries of Europe, urgently dictated the need for radical changes in all areas of life, brought the country out of a state of political immobility, caused a protest of wide sections of society against the existing order, and led to the growth of peasant uprisings. The autocracy was forced to begin self-improvement and self-regulation based on market relations and freedom of citizens.

, 5_Reformy_Speranskogo__referat.pdf , 4_Vneshnyaya_politika_Alexandra_II__mirnye_dogovory.pdf , 8_Prutskiy_i_Persidskiy_pokhody__konspekt.pdf and 69 more file(s).
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SUBJECT
"RUSSIA'S FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE REIGN OF NICHOLAS I"
1) European direction of Russian foreign policy.
1830 – 1831
The national liberation movement in Poland was suppressed.
1849
At the request of Austria, the Russian army suppresses the revolution in Hungary.
Results:
Russia received the title of “gendarme of Europe.” This title was clearly negative character, negative attitudes towards Russia in Europe are growing. European leaders - England,
France, Austria-Hungary are afraid of the growing power of Russia and the desire of Nicholas I to interfere in European affairs, but Nicholas himself does not understand or feel it, and he is even proud of the title of European gendarme.
2) The Caucasian direction of Russian foreign policy.
1817 – 1864
Caucasian War in the North Caucasus.
The main figures are General Alexey Ermolov and Imam Shamil. The war took place under the slogan of muridism. Muridism is a militant movement in Islam that demands complete submission to the Muslim clergy and war against the “infidels.”
Results: the war demanded from Russia huge amount money and sacrifices, lasted almost 50 years and ended only after the capture and death of Imam Shamil. This happened after the death of Nicholas I himself, in 1864. During the reign of Nicholas I, the problem was never resolved.
3) “Eastern Question” in Russian foreign policy.
1826 – 1828
Russian-Iranian War, the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty was signed, conditions: Iran recognized the annexation of Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan to Russia and ceded to Russia
Eastern Armenia.
1828 – 1829
Russo-Turkish War, Treaty of Andrianople signed, terms:

Russia received territories - the Danube delta, the coastal strip from Anapa to Poti, and part of Georgia.

the Balkan territories of the Ottoman Empire - Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia - received autonomy,

Greece became an independent state.
Both wars with obviously weaker opponents were won easily, but their consequences were very unfavorable for Russia. England and France are seriously concerned about the strengthening of the Russian Empire and the possibility of its access to the Mediterranean Sea, they begin negotiations on a military alliance with Turkey. And Nicholas I, inspired by easy victories, strives for a new war. He does not understand that Russia is not capable of fighting against European countries. The more disappointed he is in the results of his domestic policy, the more he strives to compensate for internal failures with a successful war.

4) Crimean War
1853 – 1856
A) The main events of the war.
Dates
Main events of the war
October–December 1853
The beginning of the war was successful for Russia. Ground forces win victories in the Balkans and Transcaucasia. Battle of Sinop (Admiral P. Nakhimov)
- complete defeat of the Turkish fleet. It seems that the war will end quickly and with a Russian victory.
January 1854
England and France present an ultimatum to Russia, demanding an immediate stop to hostilities. The Anglo-French squadron attacked Russian ships along all sea borders (Baltic Sea - Kronstadt and Sveaborg were attacked, White Sea - Solovetsky Monastery,
Pacific Ocean - Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky).
September
1854 – August
1855
Siege of Sevastopol (more details - §63).
Heroes of Sevastopol: P. Nakhimov, V. Kornilov, E. Totleben, surgeon
Pirogov.
In February 1855, Nicholas I died, Russia continues the war with the new emperor, Alexander II.
In August 1855, after a long siege, Sevastopol was surrendered, the Black Sea Fleet lost its base, and continuation of the war became pointless.
B) Results of the war.
March 1856, Treaty of Paris, terms:

Russia lost islands in the Danube Delta and Southern Bessarabia,

Russia has lost the right to have a fleet in the Black Sea, the Russian Black Sea fleet has been sunk.
C) Reasons for Russia’s defeat:
1.
Russia's unpreparedness for war,
2.
incompetent command
3.
outright theft of military supplies, which was carried out by all levels of the Russian bureaucracy,
4.
economic backwardness of the country
(lack of modern military industry and roads to supply the army),
5.
military-technical backwardness Russian army.
The main reason for Russia's defeat was the preservation of serfdom.
G) Historical meaning Crimean War.
The war showed all the country's problems (political, economic, military) and finally proved the necessity and inevitability of the abolition of serfdom.
5) Results of the reign of Nicholas I.
Positive board results
Nicholas I
Negative board results
Nicholas I
1.
although by police methods, stability has been established in the country, all the years
1.
the main issue has not been resolved - the issue of serfdom,

government there are no large peasant, and even more so, revolutionary uprisings,
2.
laws were codified and a legal framework was created Russian state,
3.
The situation of state peasants has been improved, and temporary order has been established in the country's finances.
2.
economic and technical backwardness persists and increases more and more
Russia from leading Western countries,
3.
external debt is growing,
4.
overall unsuccessful foreign policy,
5.
persists in the country social movement, and revolutionary ideas develop.

Foreign policy of European countries in the 18th century.
- International relations in Europe
  - Wars of succession
  - Seven Years' War
  - Russo-Turkish War 1768-1774
  - Foreign policy of Catherine II in the 80s.
- Colonial system of European powers
- War of Independence in the English Colonies North America
  - Declaration of Independence
  - US Constitution
  - International relations
Leading countries of the world in the 19th century.
- Leading countries of the world in the 19th century.
- International relations and the revolutionary movement in Europe in the 19th century
  - Defeat of the Napoleonic Empire
  - Spanish Revolution
  - Greek revolt
  - February Revolution in France
  - Revolutions in Austria, Germany, Italy
  - Formation of the German Empire
  - National Union of Italy
- Bourgeois revolutions V Latin America, USA, Japan
  - Civil War in USA
  - Japan in the 19th century
- Formation of industrial civilization
  - Features of the industrial revolution in different countries
  - Social consequences of the industrial revolution
  - Ideological and political trends
  - Trade union movement and education political parties
  - State-monopoly capitalism
  - Agriculture
  - Financial oligarchy and concentration of production
  - Colonies and colonial policy
  - Militarization of Europe
  - State-legal organization of capitalist countries
Russia in the 19th century
- Political and social – economic development Russia in early XIX V.
  - Patriotic War 1812
  - The situation in Russia after the war. Decembrist movement
  - “Russian Truth” by Pestel. “Constitution” by N. Muravyov
  - Decembrist revolt
- Russia in the era of Nicholas I
  - Foreign policy of Nicholas I
- Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
  - Carrying out other reforms
  - Go to reaction
  - Post-reform development of Russia
  - Socio-political movement
World wars of the 20th century. Causes and consequences
- World historical process and the 20th century
- Causes of world wars
- First World War
  - Beginning of the war
  - Results of the war
- The birth of fascism. The world on the eve of World War II
- The Second World War
  - Progress of World War II
  - Results of World War II
Major economic crises. The phenomenon of state-monopoly economy
- Economic crises of the first half of the 20th century.
  - Formation of state-monopoly capitalism
  - Economic crisis 1929-1933
  - Options for overcoming the crisis
- Economic crises of the second half of the 20th century.
  - Structural crises
  - World economic crisis 1980-1982
  - Anti-crisis government regulation
Collapse of the colonial system. Developing countries and their role in international development
- Colonialism system
- Stages of the collapse of the colonial system
- Third World countries
- Newly industrialized countries
- Education of the world system of socialism
  - Socialist regimes in Asia
- Stages of development of the world socialist system
- The collapse of the world socialist system
The third scientific and technological revolution
- Stages of modern scientific and technological revolution
  - Achievements of NTR
  - Consequences of scientific and technological revolution
- Transition to post-industrial civilization
Main trends in global development at the present stage
- Internationalization of the economy
  - Integration processes in Western Europe
  - Processes of integration of North American countries
  - Integration processes in the Asia-Pacific region
- Three world centers of capitalism
- Global problems modernity
Russia in the first half of the 20th century
- Russia in the twentieth century.
- Revolutions in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
  - Bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907.
  - Russian participation in the First World War
  - February Revolution of 1917
  - October armed uprising
- The main stages of development of the country of Soviets in the pre-war period (X. 1917 – VI. 1941)
  - Civil war and military intervention
  - New economic policy(NEP)
  - Education USSR
  - Accelerated construction of state socialism
  - Planned centralized economic management
  - Foreign policy of the USSR 20-30s.
- Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)
  - War with Japan. End of World War II
- Russia in the second half of the 20th century
- Post-war restoration of the national economy
  - Post-war restoration of the national economy - page 2
- Socio-economic and political reasons, which complicated the country’s transition to new frontiers
  - Socio-economic and political reasons that complicated the country’s transition to new frontiers - page 2
  - Socio-economic and political reasons that complicated the country’s transition to new frontiers - page 3
- Collapse of the USSR. Post-communist Russia
  - Collapse of the USSR. Post-communist Russia - page 2

Foreign policy of Nicholas I

The murid movement that began in the 30s. led by Imam Shamil, who won a number of victories over Russian troops. In the territories of Dagestan and Chechnya, he created a state system - imamate - with a large army. But already at the end of the 40s. Signs of crisis began to appear in Shamil's state system. Tsarism took advantage of the economic and military weakening of the Imamate. The re-equipped and numerically increased Russian army went on the offensive. In 1859, the remnants of Shamil's army were finally defeated.

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed in 1864.

The contradictions between Russia and European countries intensified significantly after the signing of the Unkiyar-Isklessi Treaty in 1833 by Turkey and Russia, which established a defensive military alliance with the obligation of mutual military defense.

By the middle of the 19th century. The Eastern Question occupied a very important place in the foreign policy of European countries. France and England sought military and commercial priority in the Mediterranean; Austria - to the expansion of the territory of the Ottoman Empire; Russia - to the complete defeat of Turkey alone, access to the Mediterranean Sea, closing the entrance to the Black Sea to foreign fleets and increasing influence on Slavic peoples Balkan.

All this led to the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the crossing of Russian troops across the river. Prut and occupation of the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. In the fall of 1853, the Russian squadron under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimova (1802-1855) defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay.

But the European powers did not intend to allow Russia to defeat Turkey. The English and French military squadrons entered the Golden Horn Bay. Russia was now forced to fight against England, France, and the Italian states of Piedmont and Sardinia. Military operations were transferred to Crimea. Russia's main naval base on the Black Sea, Sevastopol, was under siege. After 11 months of defense, Sevastopol fell.

Emperor Nicholas I

In today's history lesson, we will get acquainted with one of the emperors of Russia, Nicholas I Pavlovich, and we will try to briefly evaluate his successes in government and foreign policy. Nicholas the First ascended the Russian throne in 1825.

Nikolai Pavlovich was the third child in the family. In total, Emperor Paul I had five sons. From childhood, Paul the First prepared his older children for the throne, while the younger ones had to devote themselves to military service.

Nicholas remembered his father vaguely, since he was killed at a time when the future emperor was not yet five years old. This tragic event left its mark on the choice of policy during the reign of Nicholas I. First of all, upon ascending the throne, Nicholas I issues a decree, which prohibits remembering and conducting any conversations about the death of his father, and gives the room in which the murder was committed as a home church.

The reign of Emperor Nicholas I lasted about thirty years. During his reign, a bloody war was fought, and more than one, thanks to which Nicholas I managed to significantly increase the territory of the Russian Empire.

Brief overview of the foreign policy of Nicholas I

Having ascended the throne, Emperor Nicholas I immediately set himself a number of tasks, the main ones being:

Firstly, the main tasks for Europe were set, in which Nicholas I set the goal of reliably strengthening the new borders of his empire and preserving the territories that his predecessors had managed to capture and annex to the Russian Empire. Also Russian Emperor there were huge ambitions to subordinate states such as Finland, Poland and the Baltic states to Russian interests and thereby ensure stability in Europe.

Second important task Nicholas I, there was a solution to the eastern question. At that time, rather difficult relations developed between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the emperor’s desire to strengthen Russia’s position on the Black Sea coast is understandable. The Russian ruler sought dominance in the Black Sea and set himself the task of preventing foreign military vessels from entering its waters. And since in 1833 Russia managed to gain influence in the Black Sea, Nicholas I achieved the right to ban foreign ships from entering the Black Sea waters.

Another important area that was given close attention Nicholas the First is Russia’s relationship with Iran regarding Transcaucasia. Well, a little later the same question arose in the Far Eastern and Central Asian directions.

In addition, it was urgently necessary to resolve the issue related to the war in the Caucasus, which lasted almost the entire period of Nicholas’s reign. And since a religious and political movement emerged in the territories of Chechnya and Dagestan, which was actively supported by the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain, in the mid-thirties this conflict escalated even more.

During the reign of Nicholas I, Persia also decided to restore its influence in Transcaucasia and in 1826 launched a campaign against Russia. But, thanks to the support of Armenian and Georgian troops, Russian troops finally managed to defeat the Persian army and capture territories such as Erivan, southern Azerbaijan and Tabriz.

In addition, difficult relations have developed between Russia and Turkey, and this issue also required a solution. And since Nicholas I came out in defense of the Orthodox population in the Balkans and gave them political independence, this resulted in Russian-Turkish war, in which Russia suffered a number of defeats.

Therefore, summing up the results of the reign of this Russian emperor in the foreign policy arena, it is difficult to give an unambiguous assessment, since he did a lot to strengthen the position of the state, but at the same time was unable to maintain peace. And the wars that were fought during his reign brought dire economic consequences for Russia.

Russia and revolutions in Europe

Nicholas I perceived these events with great concern. On February 25, 1848, he broke off diplomatic relations with France, and on March 14, he issued a manifesto written in his own hand, in which he announced the need for a decisive fight “against the turmoil.” IN Europe this document was perceived as a challenge to the “international gendarme.”

To fight the revolutionary “infection,” Nicholas moved an army to the western borders of Russia. With the beginning of the liberation movement in the Danube principalities, he sent his troops there and took over control of Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1849, at the request of Austria, Nicholas I sent an army of 140,000 to Hungary, which within a few weeks defeated the armed forces of the rebels, who had previously defeated the Austrian troops, and put an end to the uprising in this part of the Austrian Empire.

After 15 German states entered into an agreement to create a Union (union) under the leadership of Prussia in 1849, Nicholas I made every effort to prevent the emergence of a large state in Central Europe, as this threatened to undermine Russian influence on the continent.

Simultaneously with the desire to weaken the Ottoman Empire, Nicholas I supported the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples.

All this could not but affect the interests of other European powers, concerned about the significant effort Russia .

Russian-Iranian War 1826-1828

Having received news of the events in St. Petersburg in December 1825, the Shah of Iran decided to return the territories ceded to Russia under the treaty of 1813. England actively supported him in this endeavor.

The offensive of the Iranian army in 1826 was unexpected for Russia. Before the commander-in-chief in the Caucasus, General A.P. Ermolov, had time to take action, the enemy captured the southern part of Transcaucasia and moved to Eastern Georgia. However, within a month, Ermolov’s troops were able to completely liberate the occupied areas and move war to the territory of Iran.

Appointed as the new commander of the Caucasian troops, I.F. Paskevich in 1827 launched a successful offensive. Soon the road to the capital of Iran, Tehran, was open. Under these conditions, the Shah agreed to make peace on the terms proposed by Russia. According to the
In 1828, in a treaty in Turkmanchay, the Yerevan and Nakhichevan khanates, dependent on Iran, were transferred to Russia, and Russia’s exclusive right to have a military fleet in the Caspian Sea was recognized. The Shah had to pay Russia 20 million rubles. Such results of the war caused swipe on the positions of England in Transcaucasia and gave Nicholas I a free hand in relation to Turkey.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829

Immediately after the end of the war with Iran, Russia declared war on Turkey. The fighting took place not only in the Balkans, but also in the Caucasus. While the 100,000-strong army of P. X. Wittgenstein occupied the Danube principalities, the Anapa fortress, which belonged to the Turks, was blocked on the Black Sea. Meanwhile, Paskevich’s 11,000-strong detachment moved towards Kars. It was assumed that the war would end under the walls of Constantinople before the onset of winter. However, in the Balkans, Russian troops encountered fierce resistance. Only in the Transcaucasus were they successful: significant territories were occupied, including the fortresses of Anapa, Sukhum-Kale (Sukhumi), and Poti. May 30, 1829 the new commander-in-chief of the Balkan army, General I. I. Dibich, gave a general battle, which ended in the defeat and flight of the remnants of the Turkish army. Soon he was already at the gates of Constantinople. At the same time, the Caucasian army, having won a number of victories, was preparing for a new offensive. Concerned by this development, the European powers put pressure on the Sultan to prevent the capture of Constantinople and the complete defeat of Turkey. On September 2, 1829, the Treaty of Adrianople was signed. According to it, Russia acquired the mouth of the Danube, the eastern coast of the Black Sea from the mouth of the Kuban River to the port of St. Nicholas and a number of other territories. The Bosporus and Dardanelles were declared open for the passage of merchant ships of all countries. The internal autonomy of Greece, Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia was recognized.

The Treaty of Adrianople strengthened Russia's influence in the Balkans. Ottoman Empire although it survived, it became diplomatically dependent on Russia.

Exacerbation of Russian-English contradictions

Russia's position in Turkey strengthened even more after the signing of an agreement in 1833, which established not just friendly, but allied relations between the two countries. Türkiye pledged not to allow military vessels through the straits European countries, and Russia guaranteed her military assistance if necessary. The conclusion of this treaty made relations between Russia and England hostile. In an effort to weaken Russia's role in the Caucasus, England tried to use the liberation movement of the peoples of the Caucasus, providing them with weapons and sending military advisers there. In November 1836, Russian patrol ships detained an English ship unloading weapons off the coast of the Caucasus. This brought both countries to the brink of war.

The struggle for trade rights in Central Asia and Iran led to a “trade war” between England and Russia. During the war, the British managed to weaken the position of Russian merchants. In 1839-1841. England managed to reduce Russia's influence in Turkey: from now on all leading European powers had to guarantee the security of this country, and the Bosporus and Dardanelles were closed to all military vessels, including Russian ones.

Caucasian War

After the annexation of Georgia, parts of Armenia and Azerbaijan to Russia, the habitat numerous peoples The North Caucasus (they were called highlanders) found themselves surrounded by Russian possessions. The government has made attempts to implement Russian laws in these territories. This caused resistance from a number of North Caucasian peoples. The mountaineers were especially outraged by the ban on raiding neighbors and trading in captured prisoners.

Since 1817, an open war between the highlanders and Russian troops began. In the eastern part of the North Caucasus, Chechnya and part of Dagestan became the center of resistance to Russian power. In the western Caucasus, the fight against Russian authorities led by Circassians, Circassians, Abkhazians. Commander-in-Chief of the troops in the Caucasus in 1815-1827. General A.P. Ermolov carried out numerous campaigns against the mountaineers, destroyed their villages, resettled them, cut clearings in the forests, and erected fortified points along the routes of mountaineer raids. The slave trade was prohibited on pain of death. However, the resistance of the mountaineers intensified, acquiring the character of a national liberation struggle. The rationale for this struggle was the spread among Muslims of the North Caucasus teachings about the “path to salvation” - muridism. One of the provisions of Muridism was considered to be participation in the holy war against infidels (non-Muslims). On the territory of Chechnya and Dagestan, a religious state - the imamate - arose on the basis of muridism. In 1834, Shamil became imam (ruler of the imamate). He managed to win a number of victories over Russian troops. Türkiye and England provided significant assistance to the mountaineers.

However, gradually Russian troops began to push back the highlanders. Internal contradictions intensified within the Imamate itself. Ordinary mountaineers showed increasing dissatisfaction with the harsh power of Shamil and his constant extortions. This led to the defeat of the Imamate. The territory subject to Shamil was shrinking. The final victory over the Imamate, as well as over the highlanders of Adygea, was won after the end of the reign of Nicholas I.

The Caucasian War was very long and difficult for Russia. It cost a lot of sacrifice and material resources, slowed down the economic development of the country.

Russia and Central Asia

Fearing the strengthening of England, the Russian government took measures to increase its influence in the Kazakh nomadic areas. In the 30s XIX century Khan's power in Kazakhstan was destroyed, and its northern part was divided into districts headed by Russian officials. In the 30-40s. active construction of fortifications was underway. The fortresses of Kopal and Verny (Alma-Ata) were founded by Russian military detachments.

The interests of Russia and England collided in the Khiva, Kokand and Bukhara khanates. Relations between Russia and Khiva were especially acute. Locals attacked Russian merchant caravans and enslaved captured prisoners. The rulers of the Khanate sought to subjugate the Kazakh lands. In this endeavor, Khiva was supported by the British.

In 1839, a detachment led by Orenburg Governor-General V. A. Perovsky set out from Orenburg towards Khiva. The task of the detachment was to “restore and strengthen the importance of Russia in Central Asia" However very coldy and widespread illnesses and a lack of food for the camels led to the fact that the campaign was stopped after two and a half months. The Russian troops never met the enemy.

Active foreign policy of Russia in the 20-50s. The 19th century, on the one hand, expanded the borders of the empire and contributed to the growth of its influence in various parts of the world, on the other hand, it irritated the largest European powers and their desire to limit the limits of this influence. Under these conditions, their open military clash with Russia became inevitable.

Questions and tasks

1. How has it changed? international situation Russia after the death of Alexander I? How can you explain these changes?

2. What events led to the new Russian-Iranian war?

3. How can you explain the start of the war between Russia and Turkey in 1828-1829? How can you evaluate the results? Russian-Turkish war?

4. What was the main reason for the aggravation of Anglo-Russian contradictions?

5. What are the reasons and what are the results of the Caucasian War?

6. How did the confrontation between Russia and England in Central Asia end?

Document

Count P. N. Ignatiev regarding the Peace of Adrianople

The generosity of the Emperor allowed the existence of the Turkish Empire in Europe.

Questions for the document:

1. Do you agree with Ignatiev’s assessment? Why?

2. Could the issue of liquidating Turkey be considered at that time in practical terms? Why?

Danilov A. A. History of Russia, XIX century. 8th grade: textbook. for general education institutions / A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina. - 10th ed. - M.: Education, 2009. - 287 p., l. ill., map.