LITERARY CRITICISM:

1. any philological reflection on any verbally organized text.

2. a type of literary-creative and literary-communicative activity aimed at understanding and evaluating mainly modern literary works.

Criticism translated from Greek. - “analysis”, “discussion”.

SIGNS OF LITERARY CRITICISM:

1) The purpose of LC is not the study of literature, but the formation of literature itself from individual art worlds. LC is an integral part of literature.

Belinsky: “Criticism is the self-awareness of literature”

2) Criticism must be artistic and scientific at the same time

Andrey Bely: “A critic, while remaining a scientist, is always a poet.”

Leonid Grosman:“Dissertations fade, artistic sketches remain.”

3) Publicistic, relevant, provocative (increased dialogic activity).

4) A good critic is always a good reader.

Roman Bart:“Criticism occupies an intermediate position between science and reading.”

Ivan Ilyin:“The critic is more than just a reader, he is an artistically analytical reader.”

5) The object of the LC can be a literary work of any aesthetic merit.

LK with t.zr. the subject of critical reflection (the one who writes it) happens:

1. professional- creative activity that has become the main, predominant occupation for the author. The measure of professionalism of a critic is determined by the ability to understand and evaluate a literary work based on the internal properties of the text and the multifaceted modern spiritual needs of society. Traditional genres: literary critical articles, series of articles, reviews, annual or other chronological reviews, essays, reviews, program manifestos, essays, dialogues, bibliographic notes and annotations. Prof. criticism is a borderline phenomenon between artistic literature and literary criticism.

2. writing - implies literary-critical and critical-journalistic performances of writers, the main body of whose creative heritage consists of literary texts. The literary-critical position of the writer is expressed in essayistic sketches, notes, excerpts, diary-type thoughts, epistolary confessions, various kinds of judgments about modern literature, included in the figurative structure of his own works of art.

3. reader's (amateur) - a variety of reasoned reactions to modern literary literature, belonging to people who are not professionally associated with the literary field. Reader criticism is marked by spontaneity and imbued with the spirit of confession. The most common genre is letters addressed to writers, professional critics, and publishers.

2. Methodological and stylistic originality of literary critical thought of the 18th century. Main representatives.

The formation of Russian literary criticism is a long process that began in the era of Peter the Great and is associated both with changes in literary consciousness (primarily with the increase in the individual author’s principle), and with the complication of the nature of literary communication, the expansion and stratification of the readership circle.

Petrine reforms gave a powerful impetus to development Russian society. Enlightenment ideas manifested themselves in various spheres of spiritual life: the Academy of Sciences was established (1725), Moscow University was opened (1755), book publishing activities developed, and the first newspapers and magazines appeared. Russian literature and criticism of the 18th century developed in close contact with the Western European educational movement, not only mastering world aesthetic experience, but also expressing growing national self-awareness.

The initial stage in the development of Russian literary criticism is associated with the establishment of classicism in Russian literature (1740-1770s). The specificity of criticism of these decades was that it was not distinguished from other forms of literary, artistic and scientific literary activity.

THE AGE OF CLASSICISM – the initial period (pre-criticism)

Critical judgments about literature have long been the privilege of Russian writers. In the 18th century, critical speech most often became a justification for copyright on individual aesthetic experience, a unique form of protection by the author of his work from possible attacks. The critical principle clearly manifested itself in “letters,” “discussions,” and “prefaces,” with which authors often accompanied their published works, as well as in numerous aesthetic treatises and “rhetoric.” “Letters”, “reasonings”, “prefaces” essentially performed the function of literary criticism, becoming intermediaries between the author and readers, guiding and educating aesthetic taste the educated part of Russian society and aspiring authors.

The literary-critical judgments of classic writers were normative, largely “philological” in nature.

The main “vital centers” of the emerging literature were disputes around the problems of literary genres, stylistic orderliness and linguistic clarity.

Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky pronounced a kind of verdict on the outdated syllabic system of versification based on the Polish model, emphasizing its inorganicity for Russian literature: the Russian people achieve greater “sweet voices” in their songs built on the tonic principle. While developing the beginnings of a new syllabic-tonic system of versification, the author of the treatise for the first time introduced the concepts of “tonic meter” and “foot” (“A new and short way to compose Russian poetry”).

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov in his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry,” he declared the syllabic-tonic principle of versification most consistent with the spirit of the Russian language, highlighting iambic meters among other poetic meters. Together with Trediakovsky, he considered the lack of order in the lexical composition of the Russian language to be a significant obstacle to artistic creativity. In his “Speech on the Purity of the Russian Language,” Trediakovsky stated that the “Slavic-Russian” language for “secular books” is very “obscure,” and therefore the Russian spoken language may well become literary. Lomonosov (author of Rhetoric, Russian Grammar and Preface on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language) became a true reformer of the Russian language. He outlined the doctrine of three “calms”, distinguishing between different elements of language and assigning certain genres to them. The “high” style is characteristic of heroic poems, odes and speeches “about important matters”; theatrical works, satires, elegies and poetic friendly letters should adhere to the “mediocre” (“average”) style; "low" style is decent for comedies. epigrams, songs, friendly letters in prose.

Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov. The final establishment of the aesthetics of classicism on Russian soil was marked by the appearance of his poetic treatise “Two Epistols. The first one is about the Russian language, and the second one is about poetry.” In a revised version, these epistles will form the basis of the later published work “Instruction for those who want to be writers.” “Epistoles” offered readers a system of norms and rules, following which could lead to the creation of literature of a new European type.” He didn't sum it up so much literary development(the literature of Russian classicism during this period was still in its infancy), as much as he prepared the ground for it. The only Russian poet who received high praise in his work was Lomonosov as the author of odes.

The problem of literary genres occupied an important place in the literary criticism of classic writers. They sought not only to classify them, but also to develop a theory of individual literary genres, the flourishing of which, in their opinion, would bring new Russian literature to the world level.

Peculiarities:

- terminological vagueness (no terms)

No literature language, language search

The main feature of literature is NORMATIVITY (the emergence of literary theory - “3 calms”)

Genres of LC: epistles, poetics, rhetoric, reasoning

Development of the theory of classicism

Acute controversy

Literary critic - who is he?

Already written more information, but still not enough for an objective determination. Although some steps have already been taken. All that remains is to deal with the figure of the literary and artistic critic himself. What should this person be like? How to define a professional critic, and how not to confuse him with an ordinary journalist who scolds something artistic from time to time? To be a true critic, several conditions are required. Firstly, literary education is necessary, and secondly, the subject of analysis of a professional critic should be a literary text, and not personal relationships with those who create these texts. In a word, the work of a literary critic is pure literature without any political or ideological impurities. There are, however, other, much harsher opinions about the profession of criticism. Thus, the famous Ernest Hemingway once quite angrily remarked that literary critics- these are lice on the clean body of literature.

It is worth recognizing that these points of view are still too extreme. The statements of Georgy Adamovich seem more objective to me, who believed that criticism is justified only when the writer manages to say something of his own through someone else’s fiction, that is, when, by his natural makeup, he flares up, touching someone else’s fire, and then burns and glows himself.

Many people guess, and some know, that the relationship between critics and writers as such is not going smoothly. Mutual grievances and ambitions, an attempt to determine primacy have always prevented a sober look at the problem of the relationship between a literary text and its analysis. I will also draw attention to the other side of this antagonism. It is no secret that the writers themselves often acted as literary critics. Moreover, it goes without saying that the subject of their analysis was not their own works. There are also other cases when literary critics began to appear in print as authors of literary texts. Here it is appropriate to recall Alexander Blok’s judgment that there are no genres in literature, but only belonging to the poetic spirit. Therefore, I can assume that the literary and art critic is more of a state than a constantly functioning human unit.

When trying to define literary criticism, it is also important to note that it is performed in the form of a logically organized text and must be presented in understandable language.

So, here I come to the definition of literary art criticism:

Literary and artistic criticism is a type of intellectual activity expressed through an organized text, which is based on an analysis of a work of art or works, performed by a person with a literary education in a certain spiritual state, without taking into account personal and political preferences.

Here's the definition. The kind of literary criticism that can be observed in last years, does not, alas, meet this definition. Theory, as always, diverged from practice quite fundamentally. Even such an obvious sign of artistic criticism as the organization of the text is not followed by everyone. I won't give many examples here. They lie beyond the boundaries of good and evil, but in the last ten years we have had to deal with them quite often. The condition that a critical text should be based on a work of art is not always met. Often, in polemical fervor, a critic analyzes not a literary text, but the arguments of his opponent or simply some kind of literary phenomena, rumors, gossip. In this case, literary criticism instantly turns into literary journalism. Many do not feel this most important line. About literary education there's no point in spreading it out. This question is very slippery. When we are not talking about education, then the matter, of course, is not only about the red or blue crust of the diploma. The point is the diversity of the humanitarian tools that the critic uses, the point is awareness of those issues without which it is impossible to work seriously. Unfortunately, in the articles of professional critics there are often obvious inaccuracies that indicate a lack of this very literary education.

The most difficult thing, undoubtedly, for a critic is to do without personal biases. This includes such categories as belonging to a literary clan and obligations to defend the interests of its representatives regardless of the quality of the literary text, as dependence on the conditions of the book market that needs advertising of a particular book product, as the inability to overcome personal hostility towards an individual writer . I will quote again a fragment from Sergei Yesin’s book “The Power of the Word”: “In both criticism and promotion, a terrible groupism reigned in our country. The point here is not only in the notorious secretarial literature. But if there was secretarial literature, there was secretarial criticism. These are now former heads of departments the prose of many thick magazines may shout that they did not personally edit G. Markov, V. Kozhevnikov, V. Povolyaev, Y. Surovtsev. They themselves may not have edited, literary slaves edited it, but they tacitly or not tacitly approved. , keeping silent at the editorial boards and congratulating the luminaries on their publications.” This fragment is also interesting because it tells about the bias of literary criticism, although in itself it is charmingly subjective in a writerly way.

The clannishness of criticism has become Lately some kind of scourge of the entire literary process. Liberal criticism has long turned into a common advertising gimmick for one or another publishing house, and patriotic criticism, alas, sometimes displays unacceptable didactic intolerance, regardless of what text is the subject of analysis.

There must be a certain spiritual state in criticism. I believe that criticism is the same as all others, a type of creativity that requires inspiration and all other creative quests associated with it. Literary critical work should not be perceived as some kind of day-to-day fulfillment of official duties. Literary criticism in the highest sense is belonging to the true poetic spirit. Alas, both the system of fees and simply the literary service do not always contribute to the fulfillment of this condition that is decisive for any creativity. But this, without any doubt, is a personal matter for each critic.

In general, the concept of “criticism” means judgment. It is no coincidence that the word “judgment” is closely related to the concept of “court”. To judge, on the one hand, means to consider, reason about something, analyze an object, try to understand its meaning, bring it into connection with other phenomena, etc., in a word, to carry out some examination of the subject. On the other hand, to judge means to make a final qualifying conclusion about an object, i.e. either condemn it, reject it, or justify it, recognize it as positive, and this court can be analytical, i.e. Some elements of the judged object may be considered positive, while others may be considered negative. Any criticism really includes, if it wants to be thorough, a kind of investigation, that is, a detailed examination of the subject, as well as a verdict about it.

Works of art in general and literary works in particular represent a certain organization of certain external material or symbolic elements (signs). In the end, are we dealing directly with sound, linear, colorful material, etc., in other words, is there an image in front of us that physically speaks for itself, or does it affect us through the medium of that “meaning” that associated with it - always, in the final analysis, a work of art is an organization of certain elements for certain purposes. Which ones exactly? While the expedient design of certain elements in the economy is aimed at creating an object that is directly used in practical life, as an object of everyday life or further production, a work of art acquires its value only insofar as it affects the human psyche. Even in cases where a work of art is merged with a practically useful thing (building, furniture, ceramics, etc.), the artistic side of this thing is still deeply different from the directly practical one, and its strength lies precisely in the impression that it affects the consciousness of others.

A work of art is completely unthinkable without influencing aesthetic feeling perceiver: if a work does not give pleasure, then it cannot be recognized as artistic; This pleasure does not consist in satisfying any basic human needs, but is independent.

Literary criticism closely merges with literary criticism. A literary critic who is not aware of the aesthetic power of a work of art and the direction in which this force acts is a one-sided literary critic. On the other hand, a critic is also one-sided if, when discussing a work of art, he pays no attention either to its genesis or to the reasons for those of its features that give it sharpness, brightness, and expressiveness. A judgment about the principles of a work of art in its entirety is unthinkable without genetic study, that is, without a clear idea of ​​what social forces gave rise to a given literary work. These tendencies cannot be analyzed, a judgment cannot be made about them, if the critic himself does not have precise social and ethical criteria, if he does not know what good and evil are for him. Here the critic cannot help but be an ethicist, economist, politician, sociologist, and only in the complete completion of sociological knowledge and social trends is the figure of the critic complete. Carrying out his tasks, explaining and evaluating works of modern literature in the light of the ideals of a particular social movement, a critic who takes a historically progressive position cannot but proceed from a general understanding of the objective features, patterns, and prospects for the development of literature. And he, naturally, must rely on those observations, scientific generalizations and conclusions to which literary criticism leads. But literary criticism, while fulfilling its tasks, studying literature in its national and epochal originality throughout its historical development, cannot be indifferent to the tasks that literary criticism undertakes. No matter how far a literary critic goes back into the depths of centuries in his research, he must study any national literature of the past in such a logical perspective of its development that would explain its present. A literary critic cannot conduct his research “with indifference to good and evil, knowing neither pity nor anger.” He's always a participant public life of your country and era.

Literary criticism.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Literary criticism.
Rubric (thematic category)	Literature

1) Subject literary history is primarily the past of literature as a process or as one of the moments of this process.

The literature of each nation, created in its language, has its own national characteristics, its own patterns of historical development. As a result, the scientific study of the literature of each people is a special part of literary studies, a special discipline and needs its own specialist scientists.

Works of literature always reflect the originality of the historical era in which they were created, and in this regard clearly differ from folklore texts.

Works of folklore have lived in the memory of the people for centuries and are transmitted orally. Naturally, in this case, their content and form gradually, sometimes very significantly, change. It is often difficult to discern the features of that time in folklore texts, when they originally arose. Fiction, especially printed literature, lives by different “laws”. Works created in a certain period then remain unchanged for centuries, even millennia, and retain the originality of the time that gave birth to them. In the peculiarities of their content and form, they reflect not only the characteristic features of an entire historical era, but also of its individual period, sometimes even a certain moment in the socio-political and cultural development of a particular people.

Without understanding this, without knowing many facts, events, relationships characteristic of the time when certain works arose, without the ability to delve into the very “spirit” of a particular era, it is impossible to scientifically study fiction.

For this reason, a literary critic must always turn to other historical sciences so that they arm him with certain information. He needs the ability to realize the unique originality of each period of national-historical life and its reflection in the peculiarities of the artistic content and form of literary works - historicism literary thinking.

The originality of any era is reflected, first of all, in the content of literary works created in this era, primarily in what particular phenomena of life are reproduced, what embodiment they found in images.

When studying works, a literary critic must not only be aware of the epochal features of life reflected in them. Any attentive reader can do this. A literary critic should understand such features, that is, to give oneself a clear, historically based account of the extent to which everything reproduced in the work is characteristic of such and such a country and such and such an era of its life and its difference from other countries and eras, without these specific historical knowledge, it is impossible to correctly understand what kind of life is reflected in the images of works of art, what in them became the subject of awareness and evaluation on the part of certain writers.

Not only does the reality reflected in works of verbal art contain features characteristic of a particular country and era, but also how this reality is realized and assessed by the writer.

A writer always belongs to a certain stratum of society of his time, moves in certain social and cultural circles, is characterized by a certain level of development, he is often a supporter of some political or ideological movement, a participant in what is happening in his country public events. He always has clear views on life, certain social ideals, which he expresses in his works.

Moreover, when considering the process of development of literatures of certain countries and the work of individual writers, literary scholars constantly rely on knowledge of history. At the same time, the facts that make up the literary life of the era and everything that characterizes creative activity writers and literary scholars study them independently.

Many national literatures develop over several centuries, a number of historical eras. In each of them they reveal significant features and differences in their content and form. For this reason, the history of literature as a special scientific discipline is usually divided into separate parts, to which literary scholars devote their research. For example, the history of Russian literature is divided into the history of Old Russian literature, literature of the 18th century, 19th century, early 20th century, etc. Similar divisions exist in the history of other national literatures.

However, literary criticism is a historical science associated with all sciences about the history of mankind, and with their help, seeking to establish the laws of its subject - the history of literature of the peoples of the world.

2) It is not enough for literary scholars to master only the idea that literature is closely connected with social life. Like theater experts, musicologists, etc. Literary scholars must create a specific theory of the essential features of artistic creativity, or, in other words, a theory of fiction as an art form.

It follows from this that in the general composition of literary studies, along with such a part as the history of literature of different countries, there should be another, no less important part of it - the theory of literature, which is in close connection and interaction with it.

2) Literary theory is one of the basic sections of the science of literature, the subject of study of which is: the nature and social functions of artistic creativity, the structure of artistic works and general laws development of literature.

Literary theory as a separate literary discipline has undergone very long haul historical development. The first work on literary theory is considered to be Aristotle's Poetics (IV century BC). From then until now, especially over the course of three last centuries, interest in theoretical issues of literary criticism is increasingly intensifying.

The development of questions of literary theory is of enormous, in fact decisive, importance for the historical study of literature different eras and peoples - for the history of literature as the main part of literary criticism. The historical study of the literatures of the peoples of the world cannot be carried out without the use of many general concepts about individual properties and features of literary works, about individual aspects of the process of literary development. All these concepts must be clear and definite in their content and in their relationship. Without this, historical and literary thought itself will turn out to be unclear and confused. The development and systematization of general concepts of literary criticism is carried out by literary theory. It gives literary history a tool for its specific research. If the history of literature did not have theoretically processed general concepts, it would be forced to deal only with the description of individual facts.

The interaction of history and theory of all types of arts was very accurately defined by N.G. Chernyshevsky: “The history of art serves as the basis for the theory of art, then the theory of art helps to more perfect, more complete processing of its history; the best treatment of history will serve to further improve the theory, and so on, ad infinitum... Without the history of the subject, there is no theory of the subject; but even without a theory of the subject, there is not even a thought about its history, because there is no concept of the subject, its meaning and boundaries.

Indeed, it is impossible to create the history of literature as a science without having “an understanding of the subject, its meaning and boundaries.” You cannot talk about the history of literature without knowing what fiction in general is.

Without mastering the whole system of concepts created by the theory of literature, the literary historian will work blindly, without a clear understanding of the characteristics of the subject under study, without conscious scientific tasks. He will turn out to be a poor representative of his science, unable to penetrate into the depths of the phenomena being studied, skimming only on their surface.

The system of scientific concepts that her theory develops for the historical study of literature is very complex and versatile. It consists of several sections.

First of all, literary theory must develop an idea of ​​the subject of literary criticism. In order to have a correct and complete understanding of what fiction is as an art form, you need to answer whole line questions: What are the specific features of the content of art in contrast to the content of other types of social consciousness? What is the ideological essence of art and its cognitive capabilities? How does literature, in the historically unique features of its content and form, depend on the conditions and circumstances of the national-historical life of society? What are the specific features of literature as an art form? Answering these questions requires the development of a number of concepts. The first section of the theory of literature is devoted to such development - the doctrine of the specifics of fiction.

Another range of problems is no less important. Throughout the historical development of each national literature, significant and natural changes occur in its content and its form. In order to understand these changes, a whole system of theoretical concepts is needed (kinds and genres of literature, literary movements, etc.). The development of these and similar concepts constitutes another section of literary theory - the doctrine of the peculiarities of the historical development of literature.

In order to consider individual works from the point of view of national and epochal features of literary development, in order to recognize and evaluate the ideological and artistic merits of works, a complex system of concepts is needed, with the help of which various aspects and elements of content and form can be characterized individual works.

What aspects need to be distinguished in the content and form of works of art? What, for example, is the plot of the work and the conflicts that develop in it? What is the structure of the work as a whole, its composition? How are the various aspects of content and form related to each other? These and similar questions are answered by another section of literary theory - the doctrine of the aspects and elements of the organization of a separate work of art (it is sometimes called ʼʼpoeticsʼʼ).

When studying the history of certain national literatures, a literary critic is forced at every step of his research to use the concepts of all these three sections of literary theory. And the more theoretically armed the history of literature is, the more perfect it will be as a science.

The theory of literature is interesting in its own way and is necessary not only for researchers, but also for the writers themselves. Like masters artistic word they strive to understand well the purpose and features of the business they are engaged in. For this reason, many writers (M.V. Lomonosov, A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, N.G. Chernyshevsky, etc.) devoted special works to issues of theory.

3) Literary criticism interested in the relatively simultaneous, “today’s” state of literature; it is also characterized by the interpretation of the literature of the past from the point of view of modern social and artistic problems.

The affiliation of literary criticism, which deals with the analysis and evaluation of works of art, to literary criticism as a science is not generally recognized.

Literary criticism arose quite a long time ago. Even in Ancient Greece, the speeches of publicists and the statements of poets often contained a fundamental assessment of certain works of fiction. Literary criticism received noticeable development during the Renaissance, and even more so at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, during the era of romanticism. In Russia, the heyday of literary criticism dates back to the mid-19th century, when such outstanding representatives as Belinsky, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, and Pisarev spoke. From this time on, criticism became a constant companion of literature.

The existence of criticism is due to specific features fiction itself, first of all, by the figurative and ideological meaning of its content. Naturally, it arouses ideological responses from readers, often very active ones. At the same time, some readers may experience very active sympathy for this or that work for the understanding and appreciation of life that is expressed in it, consider it truthful and convincing in content. Others, on the contrary, may disagree with the ideological orientation of the work and consider it incorrect and untrue.

Critical articles are written by people who are able to reveal and convey to others the ideological orientation of works of contemporary fiction, expressing their attitude to the texts. A literary critic usually represents in his articles not only himself personally, but also an entire literary, social camp. For this reason, one and the same work, quite deep and significant in its content, can evoke different, sometimes even opposing responses and assessments in articles by different critics representing the opinions of different social circles. An active literary-critical struggle often unfolds over some particularly significant works. An example is the intense ideological clashes that took place in Russian criticism in the 60s of the 19th century around the novel by Turgenev I.S. Fathers and Sons.

Literary criticism, at the same time, performs another task, which also stems from the very nature of fiction. The idea of ​​a work of art, that is, the comprehension and assessment of life, which is the active side of its content, is expressed not in the abstract reasoning of the writer, but in images - in the depiction of individuals (characters), their actions, relationships, experiences, and their environment. This image is made up of many details, compositional techniques, and various means. artistic expression. For an ordinary reader, even an extremely educated one, it turns out to be quite difficult through all this complex interweaving of elements of the artistic form to comprehend the content of the work, to understand its ideological orientation.

Criticism comes to the aid of readers. While explaining his understanding of a work and giving it an assessment, the critic cannot avoid analyzing it.

Along with this, literary critics provide some assistance to the writers themselves, giving them an idea of ​​how their works were understood by the reading public and how fully the author’s thoughts were perceived.

What is the relationship between literary criticism and the two other literary disciplines? The task of criticism is essentially to offer readers such an interpretation and assessment of works of modern fiction that serves the interests and ideals of a particular social movement. The main one of the basic tasks of literary criticism is to clarify and interpret the objective features and patterns of the historical development of artistic literature of the peoples of the world. At first glance, these are completely different, unrelated tasks.

At the same time, it would be a big mistake to assert that literary criticism stands outside the interests of social life and social development. To admit this means to turn literary criticism into a “pure science”. Meanwhile, literary critics are living people, they always have certain social views, their ideological positions determine the direction of their scientific work– the choice of this or that material for research, the very principles and techniques of this research, etc.

However, literary theory, literary history and literary criticism turn out to be closely related. In carrying out his own tasks, the critic cannot but proceed from a general understanding of the objective laws and prospects for the development of literature. And he, naturally, is forced to rely on those observations, scientific generalizations and conclusions that literary scholars come to. At the same time, no matter how far scientists go from the present in their research, they must study the literature of the past in a perspective that would explain its present.

Literary criticism as a system of disciplines is characterized not only by the close interconnection of all branches (literary criticism is based on data from theory and literary history, history cannot exist without theory, etc.), but also by the constant movement of material from one series to another: then , which at a certain stage was the subject of literary criticism, eventually becomes part of the history of literature.

Literary criticism. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Literary criticism." 2017, 2018.

Real readers, firstly, change from era to era and, secondly, are decidedly not equal to one another in each historical moment. Especially sharply different from each other are readers of a relatively narrow artistic educated layer, who are most involved in the intellectual and literary trends of their era, and representatives of a more wide circles societies) who are (not entirely accurately) called “mass readers.”

A kind of vanguard of the reading public (more precisely, its artistically educated part) consists of literary critics. Their activity is a very significant component (at the same time a factor) of the functioning of literature in its modern times. The vocation and task of criticism is to evaluate works of art (mostly newly created ones) and at the same time justify their judgments. “You read a poem, look at a painting, listen to a sonata,” wrote V.A. Zhukovsky, - you feel pleasure or displeasure - that’s the taste; you analyze the reason for one and the other - that’s criticism.”

Literary criticism plays the role of a creative mediator between writers and readers. She is able to stimulate and guide writing activity. V.G. Belinsky, as is known, had a considerable influence on writers who came to literature in the 1840s, in particular on F.M. Dostoevsky, N.A. Nekrasova, I.S. Turgenev. Criticism also influences the reading public, sometimes quite actively. The critic’s “beliefs, aesthetic taste,” his “personality as a whole,” “can be no less interesting than the writer’s work.”

Criticism of past centuries (up to the 18th) was predominantly normative. She persistently correlated the works under discussion with genre models. New criticism (19th-20th centuries) proceeds from the author’s rights to creativity according to the laws that he recognized over himself. She is interested primarily in the unique and individual appearance of the work, understands the originality of its form and content (and in this sense is interpretative). “May Aristotle forgive me,” wrote D. Diderot, anticipating the aesthetics of romanticism, “but the criticism that derives immutable laws on the basis of the most perfect works is incorrect; as if there weren’t countless ways to please!”

Evaluating and interpreting individual works, criticism at the same time examines the literary process of modern times (the genre of critical review of current literature in Russia has been strengthened since the Pushkin era), and also forms artistic and theoretical programs, directing literary development (articles of the late V.G. . Belinsky about " natural school", works by Vyach. Ivanov and A. Bely about symbolism). The competence of literary critics also includes the consideration of works created long ago in the light of the problems of their (critics) modernity. Vivid evidence of this is the articles of V.G. Belinsky about Derzhavin, I.S. Turgenev “Hamlet and Don Quixote”, D.S. Merezhkovsky about Tolstoy and Dostoevsky.

Literary criticism has an ambiguous relationship with the science of literature. Based on the analysis of the works, she turns out to be directly involved scientific knowledge. But there is also criticism - essays, which does not pretend to be analytical and demonstrative, but is an experience of subjective, predominantly emotional mastery of works. Characterizing his article “The Tragedy of Hippolytus and Phaedra” (about Euripides) as an essayistic one, I. Annensky wrote: “I intend to talk not about what is subject to research and calculation, but about what I experienced, pondering the speeches of the heroes and trying to grasp behind them is the ideological and poetic essence of tragedy.” “Sentences of taste” undoubtedly have their own legal rights in literary criticism and in cases where they do not receive logical justification.

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Beauty as a philosophical and aesthetic category was already established in Ancient Greece. It is unchanged - from Plato and Aristotle to Hegel and Vl. Solovyov - interfaced with the performance

Sublime. Dionysian
During antiquity and the Middle Ages, the sublime was perceived only as a property of style. The origins of this tradition are the treatise of pseudo-Longinus “On the Sublime” (1st century AD). In the second half of the 18th century

Aesthetic emotions
Until now, we have been talking about the aesthetic in its objective, objective, existential (ontological) aspect, which has attracted the attention of philosophers and scientists for many centuries. But starting from the rub

The place and role of the aesthetic in human life and society
Modern humanity has a very diverse and rich aesthetic experience. This experience has been formed over centuries and millennia. Aesthetic experiences appear to have emerged historically and

Aesthetic and aestheticism
The place of the aesthetic in the series of values ​​and, in particular, its relationship with the ethical (moral) has been and is understood in different ways. Thinkers of Germany early XIX V. often placed aesthetic values

Aesthetic and artistic
The relationship between artistic creativity and aesthetic creativity as such has been and is understood in different ways. In a number of cases, art, being understood as a cognitive activity, is a world-viewer.

Imitation theory
Historically, the first experience of considering artistic creativity as knowledge was the theory of imitation (mimesis), which arose and strengthened in Ancient Greece. Initially, imitation was called

Symbolization theory
In the Hellenistic era (based on the theory of imitation and at the same time as its overcoming), a different concept of the cognitive principles of art emerged, and in the Middle Ages strengthened: artistic creativity

Typical and characteristic
In the 19th century a new concept of art as knowledge, based on the experience of realistic creativity, strengthened and prevailed. During this era, earlier theories were overcome and simultaneously synthesized.

Art theme
§ 1. MEANINGS OF THE TERM “THEME” The word “theme” (“theme”), widely used in modern European languages, comes from ancient Greek. theme is what is the basis

Eternal themes
IN works of art the constants of being, its fundamental properties, are invariably imprinted (by the will of the author or independently of it). These are, first of all, such universal and natural

Cultural and historical aspect of the topic
Along with the universals of universal, natural and human existence (and in inextricable connection with them), art and literature invariably capture cultural and historical reality

Art as self-knowledge of the author
Along with eternal (universal) and national-historical (local, but at the same time supra-individual) themes, art captures a uniquely individual, spiritual and biographical

Artistic theme as a whole
The described types of themes are associated with the authors’ appeal to extra-artistic reality, without which art is unimaginable. "The basis of poetry is<...>material extracted from inspiration

Meanings of the term "author". Historical destinies of authorship
The word “author” (from the Latin author - subject of action, founder, organizer, teacher and, in particular, creator of a work) has several meanings in the field of art criticism. This is, firstly, t

The ideological and semantic side of art
The author makes himself known primarily as the bearer of one or another idea of ​​reality. And this determines the fundamental importance in the composition of art of its ideological and semantic side - that which

Unintentional in art
Artistic subjectivity is far from being reduced to rational development, to the actual comprehension of reality. The author, according to A. Camus, “inevitably says more than he intended.” With extreme sharpness

An expression of the author's creative energy. Inspiration
Artistic subjectivity includes (in addition to the comprehension of life and spontaneous “intrusions” of mental symptoms) also the experience of authors’ own creative energy, which has long been called

Art and play
A game is an activity free from utilitarian-practical goals and, moreover, unproductive, without results, containing a goal in itself. It expresses an excess of strength and cheerfulness of spirit. For

Author's subjectivity in a work and the author as a real person
The facets of artistic subjectivity described above, which are very heterogeneous - especially in the art of the 19th and 20th centuries - constitute the image of the author as a whole person, as an individual. Speaking words

Author's death concept
In the 20th century There is also another point of view on authorship, opposite to the one outlined and justified above. According to her artistic activity isolated from spiritual-biographical experience

Types of author's emotionality
In the art of recent centuries (especially the 19th - 20th centuries), the author's emotionality is uniquely individual. But it also invariably contains certain naturally recurring principles.

Heroic
Heroics constitute the predominant emotional and semantic beginning of historically early high genres, primarily epics (traditional folk epic). Here they rise to the shield and wax poetic about the post

Grateful acceptance of the world and heartfelt contrition
This circle of mentalities largely determined the emotional tonality of high genres of art, which became entrenched in the mainstream of the Christian tradition. The atmosphere of reverent contemplation of the world in its depths

Idyllic, sentimental, romantic
Along with heroism, the origins of which are in the epic of antiquity, and emotionality, dating back to the Christian Middle Ages, art contains such forms of life affirmation as the idyllic, and in the New

Tragic
This is one of the forms (perhaps the most important) of emotional comprehension and artistic mastery of life’s contradictions. As a state of mind, it is sorrow and compassion. At the heart of the tragic -

Laughter. comic, irony
The importance of laughter and everything connected with it for art and literature cannot be overestimated. Laughter as a facet of human consciousness and behavior, firstly, is an expression of cheerfulness, spiritual weight

Art in the light of axiology. Catharsis
Axiology is the doctrine of values ​​(from the ancient Greek axios - valuable). The term “value” became established in the humanities thanks to the treatise by F.G. Lotze (1870). In Russian philosophy, axiology

Artistry
The word “artistry” denotes, firstly, the inclusion of a work in the sphere of art or, at least, involvement in it, and secondly, a bright, consistent and wide disclosure in the work

Art in relation to other forms of culture
The place, role, and significance of art in different socio-historical situations were understood differently. The view has repeatedly gained ground that art is a dependent phenomenon.

Dispute about art and its vocation in the 20th century. Art crisis concept
The 20th century was marked by unprecedented radical shifts in the field of artistic creativity, which are associated primarily with the formation and consolidation modernist movements and directions, in part

Division of art into types. Fine and Expressive Arts
The distinction between types of art is carried out on the basis of elementary, external, formal characteristics of works. Aristotle also noted that types of art differ in their means

Artistic image. Image and sign
Turning to the ways (means) by which literature and other forms of art with visual representation carry out their mission, philosophers and scientists have long used

Artistic fiction. Conventionality and life-likeness
Artistic fiction in the early stages of the development of art, as a rule, was not recognized: archaic consciousness did not distinguish between historical and artistic truth. But really

The immateriality of images in literature. Verbal plasticity
The specificity of the figurative (objective) principle in literature is largely predetermined by the fact that the word is a conventional (conventional) sign, that it does not resemble the object it refers to.

Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics (from the ancient Greek verb “I explain”) is the art and theory of interpretation of texts (in the original meaning of the word, dating back to antiquity and the Middle Ages), the doctrine

Understanding. Interpretation. Meaning
Understanding (German: Verstehen) is the central concept of hermeneutics. G.G. Gadamer: “Wherever ignorance and unfamiliarity are eliminated, the hermeneutic process of self-realization takes place.”

Dialogicity as a concept of hermeneutics
An original discussion of the problems of hermeneutics, which greatly influenced modern humanitarian thought (not only domestic), was undertaken by M.M. Bakhtin, who developed the concept of dialogicity

Unconventional hermeneutics
Recently, a different, broader idea of ​​hermeneutics has become widespread abroad (most of all in France). Nowadays this term denotes the doctrine of any

The presence of the reader in the work. Receptive aesthetics
The reader can be present in the work directly, being concretized and localized in its text. Authors sometimes think about their readers and also have conversations with them

Real reader. Historical and functional study of literature
Along with the potential, imaginary reader (addressee), indirectly, and sometimes directly present in the work, the reading experience as such is interesting and important for literary studies.

Mass reader
The range of reading and, most importantly, the perception of what people read from different social strata are very different. So, in the Russian peasant, and partly urban, worker and craft environment of the 19th century. this

Literary hierarchies and reputations
Literary works fulfill their artistic purpose in different ways, to a greater or lesser extent, or even evade it altogether. In this regard, it is essential that

Fiction
The word "fiction" (from the French belles lettres - elegant literature) is used in different meanings: V in a broad sense- fiction (this word is used today

Fluctuations in literary reputations. Unknown and forgotten authors and works
The reputations of writers and their works are marked by greater or lesser stability. It is impossible to imagine, for example, that the opinion of Dante or Pushkin as stars of the first magnitude would be

Elite and anti-elite concepts of art and literature
The functioning of literature (especially over the past centuries), as is clear from what has been said, is marked by a sharp disproportion between what is created and accumulated, carried out.

Poetics: meanings of the term
In centuries distant from us (from Aristotle and Horace to the classicist theorist Boileau), the term “poetics” denoted the teachings of verbal art in general. This word was synonymous with

Work. Cycle. Fragment
The meaning of the term “literary work,” central to the science of literature, seems self-evident. However, it is not easy to give it a clear definition.

Russian dictionaries
The world of a literary work is the objectivity recreated in it through speech and with the participation of fiction. It includes not only material data, but also the psyche, consciousness

The character and his value orientation
In literary works, images of people, and in some cases, their likenesses: humanized animals, races, are invariably present and, as a rule, fall into the spotlight of readers' attention.

Character and writer (hero and author)
The author invariably expresses (of course, in the language of artistic images, and not direct conclusions) his attitude towards the position, attitudes, value orientation your character (hero)

Portrait
A portrait of a character is a description of his appearance: physical, natural and, in particular, age-related properties (facial features and figures, hair color), as well as everything in a person’s appearance that

Nature. scenery
The forms of the presence of nature in literature are varied. These are mythological embodiments of her powers, and poetic personifications, and emotionally charged judgments (whether individual words

Time and space
Fiction is specific in its exploration of space and time. Along with music, pantomime, dance, stage direction, it belongs to the arts, the images of which

The plot and its functions
The word “plot” (from the French sujet) denotes a chain of events recreated in a literary work, i.e. the life of the characters in its spatio-temporal changes, in the successive

Plot and conflict
It is legitimate to distinguish two kinds (types) of plot conflicts: firstly, local and transitory contradictions, and secondly, stable conflict states (positions).

In lita
Artistic speech. (stylistics)

This aspect of literary works is considered by both linguists and literary scholars. Linguists are interested in artistic speech primarily as one of the forms of using language
Artistic speech in its connections with other forms of speech activity The speech of literary works, like a sponge, intensively absorbs the most different shapes

speech activity, both oral and written. For many centuries on pi
Composition of artistic speech

Artistic speech means are heterogeneous and multifaceted. They constitute a system, which was emphasized in the writings written with the participation of P.O. Jacobson and J. Mukarzhovsky “Theses on
Specifics of artistic speech

The question of the properties of artistic speech was intensively discussed in the 1920s. It was noted that in verbal art the aesthetic function of speech dominates (P.O. Yakobson), which from everyday life
Artistic speech manifests itself in two forms: poetic (poetry) and non-poetic (prose).

Initially, the poetic form decisively prevailed
Text as a concept of philology

Initially (and most deeply) this term was strengthened in linguistics. For a linguist, a text is an act of using natural language that has a certain set of properties. To him
Text as a concept of semiotics and cultural studies

In recent decades, the term “text” has become widely used beyond philology (linguistics and literary criticism). Texts) considered as a semiotic and defined phenomenon
Text in postmodern concepts

Over the course of the last quarter of a century, a concept of the text has also emerged and strengthened, which decisively rejects the usual ideas about it that we have outlined. It can be called
Heterogeneity and foreign words

The text of a literary work is generated by the creative will of the writer: it is created and completed by it. At the same time, individual links of speech tissue can be in very
Stylization. parody. tale

Stylization is the intentional and explicit orientation of the author towards a style previously existing in artistic literature, its imitation, reproduction of its features and properties. So, in the era of
Reminiscence This term refers to those present in literary texts

“references” to previous literary facts; individual works or their groups, reminders about them. Reminis
Intertextuality

Russian dictionaries
This term was coined by J. Kristeva, a French philologist of post-structuralist orientation. Based on Bakhtin's concepts of someone else's word and dialogicality, and at the same time with them

The composition of a literary work, which constitutes the crown of its form, is the mutual correlation and arrangement of units of the depicted and artistic speech means,
Repeats and Variations

Without repetitions and their similarities (“half-repetitions,” variations, complementary and clarifying reminders of what has already been said), verbal art is unimaginable. This group of compositional techniques serves
Detailed image and summative symbols. Defaults

Artistically recreated objectivity can be presented in detail, in detail, in detail, or, on the contrary, it can be designated summarily, in summary. Here it is right to use
Co- and oppositions<...>In the construction of works, comparisons of subject-speech units play an almost decisive role. L.N. Tolstoy said that “the essence of art” lies “in

endlessly
One of the most important facets of the composition of a literary work is the sequence of introduction of units of speech and reconstructed objectivity into the text. "In a true artistic

Content of the composition
Compositional techniques, as can be seen from the above, are associated with all levels of objectivity and speech. The construction of a literary work is a multifaceted phenomenon, having various aspects.

Principles for considering a literary work
Among the tasks performed by literary criticism, the study of individual works occupies a very important place. This is self-evident. Attitudes and prospects for mastering verbal and artistic

Description and analysis
The essence of the work cannot be comprehended in any concrete and convincing way by extracting from it individual judgments of the narrator, character, lyrical hero, put

Literary interpretations
Unlike ordinary readers, as well as essayistic and artistic-creative comprehension of a literary work (in which emotions and intuitions may well predominate, diet

Contextual learning
The term “context” (from the Latin contextus – close connection, connection) is firmly entrenched in modern philology. For a literary scholar, this is an endlessly wide area of ​​connections between literatures.

Division of literature into genera
It has long been customary to unite literary and artistic works into three large groups called literary genera. It is epic, drama and lyric. Although not everything created by writers (especially

Origin of literary families
Epic, lyricism and drama were formed at the earliest stages of the existence of society, in primitive syncretic creativity. Origin literary families devoted the first of three chapters to his “Isto

Intergeneric and extrageneric forms
The types of literature are not separated from each other by an impenetrable wall. Along with works that unconditionally and completely belong to one of the literary genres, there are also those

The concept of “meaningful form” as applied to genres
Consideration of genres is unimaginable without reference to the organization, structure, and form of literary works. Theorists of the formal school persistently spoke about this. So, B.V. Tomashevs

Novel: genre essence
The novel, recognized as the leading genre of literature of the last two or three centuries, attracts the close attention of literary scholars and critics. It also becomes the subject of section

Genre structures and canons
Literary genres (in addition to content, essential qualities) have structural, formal properties that have different degrees of certainty. At earlier stages (before the era of

Genre systems. Canonization of genres
In each historical period, genres relate to each other differently. They, according to D.S. Likhachev, “enter into interaction, support each other’s existence and at the same time

Genre confrontations and traditions
In eras close to us, marked by increased dynamism and diversity artistic life, genres are inevitably involved in the struggle of literary groups, schools, and movements. When e

Literary genres in relation to extra-artistic reality
Genres of literature are connected with extra-artistic reality by very close and diverse ties. The genre essence of works is generated by globally significant cultural and historical phenomena

Meanings of the term
The word genesis (from the ancient Greek genesis) means the origin, emergence, process of formation and initial formation of an object (phenomenon), capable

On the history of studying the genesis of literary creativity
Each of the literary schools focused on one group of factors literary creativity. In this regard, let us turn to the cultural-historical school (second

Cultural tradition in its significance for literature
As part of the context that stimulates literary creativity, a responsible role belongs to the intermediate link between anthropological universals (archetypes and mythopoetics, to

Dynamics and stability in the composition of world literature
The fact that literary creativity is subject to change as history moves forward is self-evident. What attracts less attention is that literary evolution takes place at some point

Stages of literary development
The idea of ​​the presence of moments of commonality (repetition) in the development of literatures of different countries and peoples, of a single “recipient” of it, is rooted in literary criticism and is not disputed by anyone.

Literary communities (art systems) 19th – 20th centuries
In the 19th century (especially in its first third) the development of literature went under the sign of romanticism, which opposed classicist and enlightenment rationalism. Originally Roma

Regional and national specificity of literature
The deep, essential differences between the cultures (and, in particular, literatures) of the countries of the West and the East, these two great regions, are self-evident. Original and distinctive features about

International literary connections
The symphonic unity that was discussed is ensured by world literature, first of all, by a single fund of continuity (for the topic, see pp. 356–357), as well as by the commonality of stages of development

Basic concepts and terms of the theory of literary process
In the comparative historical study of literature, terminological issues turn out to be very serious and difficult to resolve. Traditionally identified international literary communities

Literary criticism

Literary criticism- the field of literary creativity on the border between art (fiction) and the science of literature (literary criticism).

Engaged in the interpretation and evaluation of works of literature from the point of view of modernity (including pressing problems of social and spiritual life); identifies and affirms creative principles literary trends; has an active influence on the literary process, as well as directly on the formation of public consciousness; relies on the theory and history of literature, philosophy, aesthetics. It is often journalistic, political and topical in nature, intertwined with journalism. Closely connected with related sciences - history, political science, linguistics, textual criticism, bibliography.

Story

Already distinguished in antiquity in Greece and Rome, also in ancient india and China as a special professional occupation. But for a long time it has only “applied” meaning. Its task is to give a general assessment of the work, to encourage or condemn the author, and to recommend the book to other readers.

Then, after a long break, it again emerged as a special type of literature and as an independent profession in Europe, from the 17th century to the first half of the 19th century (T. Carlyle, C. Sainte-Beuve, I. Taine, F. Brunetier, M. Arnold, G. Brandes).

History of Russian literary criticism

Until the 18th century

Elements of literary criticism appear already in written monuments of the 11th century. Actually, as soon as someone expresses their opinion about a work, we are dealing with elements of literary criticism.

Works containing such elements include

• The word of a certain good old man about reading books (included in the Izbornik of 1076, sometimes erroneously called the Izbornik of Svyatoslav);
• A Word on Law and Grace by Metropolitan Hilarion, where there is a consideration of the Bible as a literary text;
• The word about Igor’s Campaign, where at the beginning the intention is stated to sing in new words, and not in the usual “boyanov” - an element of discussion with “boyan”, a representative of the previous literary tradition;
• Lives of a number of saints who were the authors of significant texts;
• Letters from Andrei Kurbsky to Ivan the Terrible, where Kurbsky reproaches the Terrible for caring too much about the beauty of the word, about the weaving of words.

Significant names of this period are Maxim the Greek, Simeon of Polotsk, Avvakum Petrov (literary works), Melety Smotritsky.

XVIII century

For the first time in Russian literature, the word “critic” was used by Antioch Cantemir in 1739 in the satire “Education”. Also in French - critique. In Russian writing it will come into frequent use in the mid-19th century.

Literary criticism begins to develop with the advent of literary magazines. The first such magazine in Russia was “Monthly Works Serving for Benefit and Entertainment” (1755). The first Russian author to turn to a review is considered to be N.M. Karamzin, who preferred the genre of monographic reviews.

Character traits literary polemics of the 18th century:

• linguistic-stylistic approach to literary works(the main attention is paid to errors of language, mainly the first half of the century, especially characteristic of the speeches of Lomonosov and Sumarokov);
• normative principle (characteristic of the dominant classicism);
• taste principle (put forward at the very end of the century by sentimentalists).

19th century

The historical-critical process occurs mainly in the relevant sections of literary magazines and other periodicals, and is therefore closely related to the journalism of this period. In the first half of the century, criticism was dominated by such genres as remark, response, note, and later the problem article and review became the main ones. The reviews of A. S. Pushkin are of great interest - these are short, elegantly and literaryly written, polemical works that testify to the rapid development of Russian literature. The second half is dominated by genre critical article or a series of articles approaching a critical monograph.

Belinsky and Dobrolyubov, along with “annual reviews” and major problem articles, also wrote reviews. In Otechestvennye Zapiski, Belinsky for several years ran the column “Russian Theater in St. Petersburg,” where he regularly gave reports on new performances.

Sections of criticism of the first half of the 19th century are formed on the basis of literary movements (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism). In criticism of the second half of the century, literary characteristics are complemented by socio-political ones. A special section includes literary criticism, which is distinguished by great attention to the problems of artistic mastery.

At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, industry and culture were actively developing. Compared to the mid-19th century, censorship has weakened significantly and the level of literacy has increased. Thanks to this, many magazines, newspapers, and new books are published, and their circulation increases. Literary criticism is also flourishing. Among the critics are a large number of writers and poets - Annensky, Merezhkovsky, Chukovsky. With the advent of silent films, film criticism was born. Before the 1917 revolution, several magazines with film reviews were published.

XX century

A new cultural surge occurs in the mid-1920s. Ended Civil War, and the young state gets the opportunity to engage in culture. These years saw the heyday of the Soviet avant-garde. Malevich, Mayakovsky, Rodchenko, Lissitzky create. Science is also developing. The largest tradition of Soviet literary criticism of the first half of the 20th century. - formal school - is born precisely in line with strict science. Its main representatives are considered to be Eikhenbaum, Tynyanov and Shklovsky.

Insisting on the autonomy of literature, the idea of ​​independence of its development from the development of society, rejecting the traditional functions of criticism - didactic, moral, socio-political - the formalists went against Marxist materialism. This led to the end of avant-garde formalism during the years of Stalinism, when the country began to turn into a totalitarian state.

In the subsequent years 1928–1934. principles are formulated socialist realism- official style Soviet art. Criticism becomes a punitive tool. In 1940, the Literary Critic magazine was closed, and the criticism section of the Writers' Union was dissolved. Now criticism had to be directed and controlled directly by the party. Columns and criticism sections appear in all newspapers and magazines.

Famous Russian literary critics of the past

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