Literary criticism occupies one of the central positions in the modern literary process, largely determining the development of domestic literature and traditionally being a connecting link between the writer and the reader.
If in Soviet time Having become an instrument of ideological propaganda, criticism practically lost its influence on the readership, then from the late 1980s. there is its revival and return to the literary situation as a full-fledged phenomenon of modern society, free from political engagement. literary life. Young critics, such as P. Basinsky, N. Eliseev, N. Ivanova, A. Nemzer, S. Chuprini, K. Stepanyan, saw their task primarily in an objective examination of the diverse, multidimensional literature that came to the reader in the perestroika and post-Soviet years . At this time, criticism acutely felt the need to abandon outdated templates in the study of Russian literature, especially modern literature. Criticism was the first to sense the creation of a new aesthetic system, destroying old myths, offering new artistic language and, therefore, requiring the development of other criteria for evaluating and comprehending emerging works. Understanding continuity literary process and constant dialogue modern literature with the literature of past eras has become one of the leading principles of a critical approach to literary text.
Modern criticism actively participates in the discussion of issues further development Russian literature. In the 1990s - early 2000s. on the pages of thick magazines a number of discussions took place that were fundamentally significant for understanding the general trends observed in modern Russian literature: “On mass literature, its readers and authors” (1998), “Criticism: the last call” (1999), “Modern literature: Noah’s Ark? (1999), “Russian poetry at the end of the century. Neoarchaists and neonovators" (2001). Critics and writers who participated in the discussion of the stated issues expressed very different opinions about the prospects for the development of literature, but the unifying point was the statement of the fact that the talk about the “death of Russian literature” that was popular in the early 1990s turned out to be completely groundless.
New criticism at the turn of the 20th – 21st centuries is closely connected with literary everyday life. The critic informs the reader about emerging new works, gives a competent analysis of the artistic value of a literary text, therefore his assessments, recommendations, and reflective attitude towards what he read are not only assumed, but also expected, not only by the readership, but also by writers. IN current situation The opinion of critics often contributes to the success, and not least the commercial success, or failure of a particular work. Sharp, often scandalous, critical articles often provoke interest in texts written in an unusual aesthetic manner, as was the case, for example, with Vic’s novels. Erofeeva, V. Pelevina, V. Sorokina. Aware of his dependence on critical assessment, the writer is forced to take into account the opinions of critics when working on a new work. At the same time, critical discussions on the pages of literary magazines and newspapers often open the way to readers for many talented authors. Thus, it was thanks to critical reviews and discussions that such writers as T. Tolstaya, L. Ulitskaya, D. Rubina, V. Pelevin, M. Shishkin gained fame among readers.
Modern critics are free to choose their function, their approach to a literary text and their tools. Literary criticism of the late 1990s - early 2000s. extremely diverse, as is the object of her interests. You can select the following directions activities of critics:
– traditional historical and literary approach, presented in articles by L. Anninsky, N. Ivanova, I. Rodnyanskaya, A. Latynina, M. Lipovetsky;
– reviews and reviews new literature, compiled by A. Nemzer, D. Bykov, L. Pirogov;
– critical essayism, occupying an intermediate position between criticism proper and fiction (A. Genis, P. Weil, V. Novikov);
– criticism of a provocative nature, updating attention to controversial literary phenomenon(Vik. Erofeev, M. Zolotonosov, B. Paramonov);
– youth slang criticism of literary sites on the Internet and fashion magazines.
Another important component of modern criticism is its isolation in artistic creativity: many of the critics create their own works (for example, O. Slavnikova, D. Bykov, V. Kuritsyn), and writers and poets, in turn, come out with critical articles and notes (Vik. Erofeev, S. Gandlevsky, T. Tolstaya , V. Shubinsky).
Thus, literary criticism is an important element of the modern literary process, without which it is impossible to form a holistic, full-fledged idea of the development of Russian literature of the late 20th - early 21st centuries.
Main literature
Contemporary Russian literature (1990s - beginning of XXI c.) / S.I. Timina, V.E. Vasiliev, O.V. Voronina et al. St. Petersburg, 2005.
Russian literature of the 20th century in the mirror of criticism: Reader / Comp. S.I. Timina, M.A. Chernyak, N.N. Kyakshto. M., St. Petersburg, 2003.
additional literature
Ivanova N. Overcoming postmodernism // Znamya. 1998. No. 4.
Nemzer A. A wonderful decade: about Russian prose of the 90s // New world. 2000. № 1.
Criticism: last call: conference hall // Banner. 1999. No. 12.
Dubin B. Literary culture today // Znamya. 2002. No. 12.
Seminar lesson plans
Seminar lesson No. 1.
The problem of periodization of Russian literature. Patterns of development of modern literature
1. The concept of stadiality by M. Epstein. Cycles and phases of development of Russian literature. The criteria underlying this concept.
2. At what stage of development, according to M. Epstein, is the literature of the 1980s - 1990s?
3. Advantages and disadvantages of the concept of stadiality by M. Epstein. Possible ways to clarify and adjust it.
4. The essence of the theory of regularities and antiregularities D.S. Likhacheva.
5. What works and writers of Russian literature of the 20th century confirm the correctness of D.S.’s judgments? Likhachev on the development of Russian literature?
Exercise:
Compile abstracts of the articles “After the Future. On the new consciousness in literature" by M. Epstein and "Regularities and anti-regularities in literature" by D.S. Likhachev, based on the proposed seminar lesson plan.
Literature
1. Epstein M. After the Future. On the new consciousness in literature // Znamya. 1991. No. 1. P. 217-230.
2. Likhachev D.S. Regularities and anti-regularities in literature // Russian literature. 1986. No. 3. P. 27-29.
3. Likhachev D.S. The structure of literature: towards posing the question // Russian literature. 1986. No. 3. P. 29-30.
4. Leiderman N., Lipovetsky M. Modern Russian literature: 1950-1990s. In 2 volumes. T. 2 1968-1990. M., 2007.
5. Nefagina G.L. Russian prose of the late 20th century. M., 2005.
6. Modern Russian literature (1990s - beginning of the 21st century) / S.I. Timina, V.E. Vasiliev, O.V. Voronina et al. St. Petersburg, 2005.
Seminar lesson No. 2.
Criticism from the Greek “kritice” - to disassemble, to judge, appeared as a unique form of art back in antiquity, over time becoming a real professional occupation, which for a long time had an “applied” character, aimed at a general assessment of a work, encouraging or, on the contrary, condemning the author’s opinion, as well as whether or not to recommend the book to other readers.
Over time, this literary trend developed and improved, beginning its rise in European Age Renaissance and reaching significant heights by the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries.
On the territory of Russia, the rise of literary criticism occurred in the mid-19th century, when it, having become a unique and striking phenomenon in Russian literature, began to play a huge role in the social life of that time. In the works of eminent critics XIX century(V.G. Belinsky, A.A. Grigoriev, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, A.V. Druzhinin, N.N. Strakhov, M.A. Antonovich) was concluded not only detailed review literary works other authors, analysis of the personalities of the main characters, discussion artistic principles and ideas, but also a vision and own interpretation of the whole picture of the modern world as a whole, its moral and spiritual problems, and ways to solve them. These articles are unique in their content and the power of their impact on the minds of the public, and today they are among the most powerful tools for influencing the spiritual life of society and its moral principles.
Russian literary critics of the 19th century
At one time, A. S. Pushkin’s poem “Eugene Onegin” received many varied reviews from contemporaries who did not understand the brilliant innovative techniques of the author in this work, which has a deep, genuine meaning. It was this work of Pushkin that the 8th and 9th critical articles of Belinsky’s “Works of Alexander Pushkin” were devoted to, who set himself the goal of revealing the relationship of the poem to the society depicted in it. The main features of the poem, emphasized by the critic, are its historicism and the truthfulness of the reflection of the actual picture of the life of Russian society in that era; Belinsky called it “an encyclopedia of Russian life”, and in highest degree folk and national work."
In the articles “A Hero of Our Time, the Work of M. Lermontov” and “Poems of M. Lermontov,” Belinsky saw in Lermontov’s work an absolutely new phenomenon in Russian literature and recognized the poet’s ability to “extract poetry from the prose of life and shock souls with its faithful depiction.” In works outstanding poet the passion of poetic thought is noted, in which all the most pressing problems are touched upon modern society, the critic called Lermontov the successor of the great poet Pushkin, noting, however, the complete opposite of their poetic character: for the former, everything is permeated with optimism and described in bright colors, for the latter, on the contrary, the writing style is distinguished by gloom, pessimism and grief over lost opportunities.
Selected works:
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Dobrolyubov
Famous critic and publicist of the mid-19th century. N. And Dobrolyubov, a follower and student of Chernyshevsky, in his critical article “A Ray of Light in the Dark Kingdom” based on Ostrovsky’s play “The Thunderstorm”, called him the most decisive work author, which touches on very important “sore issues” social problems of that time, namely the clash of the personality of the heroine (Katerina), who defended her beliefs and rights, with “ dark kingdom"- representatives of the merchant class, distinguished by ignorance, cruelty and meanness. The critic saw in the tragedy described in the play the awakening and growth of protest against the oppression of tyrants and oppressors, and in the image main character the embodiment of the great people's idea of liberation.
In the article “What is Oblomovism,” devoted to the analysis of Goncharov’s work “Oblomov,” Dobrolyubov considers the author to be a talented writer who in his work acts as an outside observer, inviting the reader to draw conclusions about its content. Main character Oblomov is compared with others " extra people of his time" Pechorin, Onegin, Rudin and is considered, according to Dobrolyubov, the most perfect of them, he calls him a "nonentity", angrily condemns his character traits (laziness, apathy towards life and reflection) and recognizes them as a problem not only of one specific person, and the entire Russian mentality in general.
Selected works:
Apollo Aleksandrovich Grigoriev
The play “The Thunderstorm” by Ostrovsky made a deep and enthusiastic impression on the poet, prose writer and critic A. A. Grigoriev, who in the article “After the “Thunderstorm” by Ostrovsky. Letters to Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev” does not argue with Dobrolyubov’s opinion, but somehow corrects his judgments, for example, replacing the term tyranny with the concept of nationality, which, in his opinion, is inherent specifically in the Russian people.
Selected work:
D.I. Pisarev, the “third” outstanding Russian critic after Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov, also touched on the topic of Goncharov’s Oblomovism in his article “Oblomov” and believed that this concept very successfully characterizes a significant vice of Russian life that will always exist, highly appreciated this work and called it relevant for any era and for any nationality.
Selected work:
The famous critic A.V. Druzhinin, in his article “Oblomov,” a novel by I.A. Goncharov,” drew attention to the poetic side of the nature of the main character, landowner Oblomov, which evokes in him not a feeling of irritation and hostility, but even a certain sympathy. He considers the most important positive qualities Russian landowner's tenderness, purity and gentleness of soul, against the background of which the laziness of nature is perceived more tolerantly and is regarded as a certain form of protection from the influences of harmful activities " active life» other characters
Selected work:
One of famous works The outstanding classic of Russian literature I.S. Turgenev, which caused a stormy public response, was the novel “Fathers and Sons” written in 18620. In the critical articles “Bazarov” by D. I. Pisarev, “Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev” by N. N. Strakhov, as well as M. A. Antonovich “Asmodeus of Our Time,” a heated debate flared up over the question of who should be considered the main the hero of Bazarov's work - a jester or an ideal to follow.
N.N. Strakhov in his article “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev" saw the deep tragedy of Bazarov’s image, his vitality and dramatic attitude to life and called him the living embodiment of one of the manifestations of the true Russian spirit.
Selected work:
Antonovich viewed this character as an evil caricature of the younger generation and accused Turgenev of turning his back on democratically minded youth and betraying his former views.
Selected work:
Pisarev saw in Bazarov a useful and real person, which is capable of destroying outdated dogmas and outdated authorities, and thus clearing the way for the formation of new advanced ideas.
Selected work:
The common phrase that literature is created not by writers, but by readers turns out to be 100% true, and the fate of the work is decided by the readers, on whose perception it depends future destiny works. It is literary criticism that helps the reader form his personal final opinion about this or that work. Critics also provide invaluable assistance to writers when they give them an idea of how understandable their works are to the public, and how correctly the thoughts expressed by the author are perceived.
Literary criticism arose simultaneously with literature itself, since the processes of creation work of art and his professional assessment are closely interrelated. For centuries, literary critics belonged to the cultural elite, as they were required to have exceptional education, serious analytical skills, and impressive experience.
Despite the fact that literary criticism appeared in antiquity, it only took shape as an independent profession in the 15th and 16th centuries. Then the critic was considered an impartial “judge” who had to consider the literary value of the work, its compliance with genre canons, and the author’s verbal and dramatic skill. However, gradually literary criticism began to reach new level, since literary criticism itself developed at a rapid pace and was closely intertwined with other sciences of the humanities cycle.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, literary critics were, without exaggeration, “arbiters of destinies,” since the career of a particular writer often depended on their opinions. If today public opinion is formed in slightly different ways, then in those days it was criticism that had a primary influence on the cultural environment.
The tasks of a literary critic
It was possible to become a literary critic only by understanding literature as deeply as possible. Nowadays, a review of a work of art can be written by a journalist, or even by an author who is generally far from philology. However, during the heyday of literary criticism, this function could only be performed by a literary scholar who was no less well versed in philosophy, political science, sociology, and history. The critic's minimum tasks were as follows:
- Interpretation and literary analysis a work of art;
- Evaluation of the author from a social, political and historical point of view;
- Disclosure deep meaning books, determining its place in world literature through comparison with other works.
A professional critic invariably influences society by broadcasting his own beliefs. That is why professional reviews are often characterized by irony and harsh presentation of material.
The most famous literary critics
In the West, the strongest literary critics were initially philosophers, among them G. Lessing, D. Diderot, G. Heine. Often reviews of new and popular authors were also given by venerable contemporary writers, for example V. Hugo and E. Zola.
IN North America literary criticism as a separate cultural sphere- By historical reasons- developed much later, so its heyday was already at the beginning of the 20th century. During this period, the key persons were considered V.V. Brooks and W.L. Parrington: they had the greatest influence on the development of American literature.
The golden age of Russian literature was famous for its strongest critics, the most influential of which:
- DI. Pisarev,
- N.G. Chernyshevsky,
- ON THE. Dobrolyubov
- A.V. Druzhinin,
- V.G. Belinsky.
Their works are still included in school and university curricula, along with the masterpieces of literature themselves, to which these reviews were devoted.
For example, Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky, who was unable to graduate from either a gymnasium or a university, became one of the most influential figures in literary criticism of the 19th century. He has written hundreds of reviews and dozens of monographs on the works of the most famous Russian authors from Pushkin and Lermontov to Derzhavin and Maykov. In his works, Belinsky not only considered artistic value work, but also determined its place in the socio-cultural paradigm of that era. The position of the legendary critic was sometimes very harsh, destroying stereotypes, but his authority is still at a high level to this day.
Development of literary criticism in Russia
Perhaps the most interesting situation with literary criticism developed in Russia after 1917. Never before has any industry been politicized as in this era, and literature was no exception. Writers and critics have become instruments of power, exerting a powerful influence on society. We can say that criticism no longer served high goals, but only solved the problems of power:
- strict screening of authors who did not fit into the political paradigm of the country;
- the formation of a “perverted” perception of literature;
- promotion of a galaxy of authors who created “correct” examples of Soviet literature;
- maintaining the patriotism of the people.
Alas, from a cultural point of view, this was a “black” period in national literature, since any dissent was harshly persecuted, and truly talented authors did not have a chance to create. That is why it is not at all surprising that government officials, including D.I., acted as literary critics. Bukharin, L.N. Trotsky, V.I. Lenin. Politicians had their own opinions about the most famous works of literature. Their critical articles were published in huge editions and were considered not only the primary source, but also the final authority in literary criticism.
For several decades Soviet history The profession of literary critic has become almost meaningless, and there are very few of its representatives left due to mass repressions and executions.
In such “painful” conditions, it was inevitable that opposition-minded writers would appear, who at the same time acted as critics. Of course, their work was classified as prohibited, so many authors (E. Zamyatin, M. Bulgakov) were forced to work in immigration. However, it is their works that reflect real picture in the literature of that time.
A new era in literary criticism began during the Khrushchev “thaw”. The gradual debunking of the cult of personality and a relative return to freedom of expression of thought revived Russian literature.
Of course, restrictions and politicization of literature have not gone away, however, articles by A. Kron, I. Ehrenburg, V. Kaverin and many others began to appear in philological periodicals, who were not afraid to express their opinions and turned the minds of readers upside down.
A real surge in literary criticism occurred only in the early nineties. Enormous upheavals for the people were accompanied by an impressive pool of “free” authors who could finally be read without threat to life. The works of V. Astafiev, V. Vysotsky, A. Solzhenitsyn, Ch. Aitmatov and dozens of other talented wordsmiths were vigorously discussed both in professional circles and by ordinary readers. One-sided criticism was replaced by controversy, when everyone could express their opinion about the book.
These days, literary criticism is a highly specialized field. Professional assessment literature is in demand only in scientific circles, but is truly interesting to a small circle of literature connoisseurs. Public opinion opinion about a particular writer is formed by a whole range of marketing and social tools that have nothing to do with professional criticism. And this state of affairs is only one of the integral attributes of our time.
Story
Already distinguished in antiquity in Greece and Rome, also in ancient india and China as a special professional occupation. But for a long time it has only “applied” meaning. Its task is to give a general assessment of the work, to encourage or condemn the author, and to recommend the book to other readers.
Then, after a long break, it again develops like special kind literature and as an independent profession in Europe, from the 17th century to the first half of the 19th century (T. Carlyle, C. Sainte-Beuve, I. Taine, F. Brunetier, M. Arnold, G. Brandes).
History of Russian literary criticism
Until the 18th century
Elements of literary criticism appear already in written monuments XI century. Actually, as soon as someone expresses his opinion about any work, we are dealing with elements of literary criticism.
Works containing such elements include
- The word of a certain good old man about reading books (included in the Izbornik of 1076, sometimes mistakenly called the Izbornik of Svyatoslav);
- A Word on Law and Grace by Metropolitan Hilarion, where there is a consideration of the Bible as a literary text;
- The word about Igor's Campaign, where at the beginning the intention is stated to sing in new words, and not in the usual “boyanov” - an element of discussion with “boyan”, a representative of the previous literary tradition;
- Lives of a number of saints who were the authors of significant texts;
- Letters from Andrei Kurbsky to Ivan the Terrible, where Kurbsky reproaches the Terrible for caring too much about the beauty of the word, about the weaving of words.
Significant names of this period are Maxim the Greek, Simeon of Polotsk, Avvakum Petrov (literary works), Meletiy Smotritsky.
XVIII century
For the first time in Russian literature, the word “critic” was used by Antioch Cantemir in 1739 in the satire “On Education.” Also in French - critique. In Russian writing it will come into frequent use in the middle of the 19th century.
Literary criticism begins to develop with the advent of literary magazines. The first such magazine in Russia was “Monthly Works Serving for Benefit and Entertainment” (1755). The first Russian author to turn to a review is considered to be N. M. Karamzin, who preferred the genre of monographic reviews.
Characteristic features of literary polemics of the 18th century:
- linguistic-stylistic approach to literary works(the main attention is paid to errors of language, mainly the first half of the century, especially characteristic of the speeches of Lomonosov and Sumarokov);
- normative principle (characteristic of the dominant classicism);
- taste principle (put forward at the very end of the century by sentimentalists).
19th century
The historical-critical process takes place mainly in the relevant sections of literary magazines and other periodicals, and is therefore closely related to the journalism of this period. In the first half of the century, criticism was dominated by such genres as remark, response, note, and later the problem article and review became the main ones. The reviews of A. S. Pushkin are of great interest - these are short, elegantly and literaryly written, polemical works that testify to the rapid development of Russian literature. The second half is dominated by genre critical article or a series of articles approaching a critical monograph.
Belinsky and Dobrolyubov, along with “annual reviews” and major problem articles, also wrote reviews. In Otechestvennye Zapiski, Belinsky for several years ran the column “Russian Theater in St. Petersburg,” where he regularly gave reports on new performances.
Sections of criticism first half of the 19th century centuries are formed on the basis of literary movements (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism). In criticism of the second half of the century literary characteristics complemented by socio-political ones. A special section includes literary criticism, which is distinguished by great attention to the problems of artistic mastery.
On turn of the 19th century- Industry and culture are actively developing in the 20th century. Compared with mid-19th century, censorship is significantly weakened, and the level of literacy increases. Thanks to this, many magazines, newspapers, and new books are being published, and their circulation is increasing. Literary criticism is also flourishing. Among the critics a large number of writers and poets - Annensky, Merezhkovsky, Chukovsky. With the advent of silent films, film criticism was born. Before the 1917 revolution, several magazines with film reviews were published.
XX century
A new cultural surge occurs in the mid-1920s. Ended Civil War, and the young state gets the opportunity to engage in culture. These years saw the heyday of the Soviet avant-garde. Malevich, Mayakovsky, Rodchenko, Lissitzky create. Science is also developing. The largest tradition of Soviet literary criticism of the first half of the 20th century. - formal school - is born precisely in line with strict science. Its main representatives are considered to be Eikhenbaum, Tynyanov and Shklovsky.
Insisting on the autonomy of literature, the idea of independence of its development from the development of society, rejecting the traditional functions of criticism - didactic, moral, socio-political - the formalists went against Marxist materialism. This led to the end of avant-garde formalism during the years of Stalinism, when the country began to turn into a totalitarian state.
In the subsequent years 1928–1934. principles are formulated socialist realism- official style Soviet art. Criticism becomes a punitive tool. In 1940, the Literary Critic magazine was closed, and the criticism section of the Writers' Union was dissolved. Now criticism was to be directed and controlled directly by the party. Columns and criticism sections appear in all newspapers and magazines.
Famous Russian literary critics of the past
- Belinsky, Vissarion Grigorievich (-)
- Pavel Vasilyevich Annenkov (according to other sources -)
- Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky (-)
- Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov ( -)
- Nikolay Alexandrovich Dobrolyubov (-)
- Nikolai Konstantinovich Mikhailovsky (-)
- Govorukho - Otrok, Yuri Nikolaevich (-)
Genres of Literary Criticism
- a critical article about a particular work,
- review, problematic article,
- critical monograph on the modern literary process.
Schools of literary criticism
- Chicago School, also known as "neo-Aristotelian".
- Yale School of Deconstructionist Criticism.
Notes
Literature
- Krupchanov L.M. History of Russian literary criticism of the 19th century: Textbook. allowance. - M.: "Higher School", 2005.
- History of Russian literary criticism: Soviet and post-Soviet eras / Ed. E. Dobrenko and G. Tikhanova. M.: New Literary Review, 2011
Links
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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encyclopedic Dictionary Engaged in assessment individual works literature. Dictionary foreign words , included in the Russian language. Pavlenkov F., 1907 ...
Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language- (from the Greek kritike the art of evaluating, judging) the area of literary creativity on the verge of art and the science of literature (literary criticism). Engaged in the interpretation and evaluation of works of art from the point of view of the interests of modern... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus in literary studies
The field of literary creativity on the verge of art (fiction) and the science of literature (literary criticism). Engaged in the interpretation and evaluation of works of literature from the point of view of modernity (including pressing problems... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Evaluation and interpretation of a work of art, identification and approval creative principles one or another literary direction; one of the types of literary creativity. L.K. is based on the general methodology of the science of literature (see... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia