The era of great geographical discoveries is of enormous importance in the history of mankind. Most of the usual goods and food products simply would not exist in our market today without these two centuries.
Background
The Age of Discovery is the period from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries AD. The term came about because of the intense exploration and expansion that occurred over two hundred years. At this time, the countries of Western Europe and the Muscovite kingdom significantly expanded their possessions by including new territories.
Sometimes lands were bought, less often they were simply settled, more often they had to be conquered.
Today, scientists believe that the main reason that caused the surge in such expeditions was competition in finding a shortcut to India. At the end of the Middle Ages in countries Western Europe the opinion spread that this was a very rich state.
After the Portuguese began to bring spices, gold, fabrics and jewelry from there, Castile, France and other countries began to look for alternative routes. The Crusades no longer provided sufficient financial satisfaction, so there was a need to open new markets.
Portuguese expeditions
As we said earlier, the Age of Discovery began with the first expeditions of the Portuguese. While exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa, they reached the Cape of Good Hope and ended up in the Indian Ocean. Thus the sea route to India was opened.
Before this, several important events occurred that led to such an expedition. In 1453, Constantinople fell. Muslims captured one of the most important Christian shrines. From now on, the path of European merchants to the east - to China and India - was blocked.
But without the ambitions of the Portuguese crown, perhaps the era of great geographical discoveries would never have begun. King Afonso V began searching for Christian states in southern Africa. At that time, there was an opinion that beyond the lands of the Muslims, beyond Morocco, the forgotten Christian peoples began.
This is how the Cape Verde islands were discovered in 1456, and a decade later they began to develop the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Today it is the Ivory Coast.
The year 1488 marked the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Storms (later renamed the Cape of Good Hope by the king) and dropped anchor on the Pacific coast.
Thus, a bypass route to India was opened. The only problem for the Portuguese was that the journey took a year. For the rest of the monarchs, the discovery became a thorn, since, according to the papal bull, it was Portugal that monopolized it.
Discovery of America
Many believe that the era of great geographical discoveries began with the discovery of America. However, this was already the second stage.
The fifteenth century was a rather difficult period for the two parts of modern Spain. Then these were separate kingdoms - Castile and Aragon. The first, in particular, was at that time the most powerful Mediterranean monarchy. It included the territories of southern France, southern Italy, several islands and part of the coast of North Africa.
However, the reconquista process and the war with the Arabs significantly distanced the country from geographical research. The main reason The fact that the Castilians began to finance Christopher Columbus was the beginning of a confrontation with Portugal. This country, due to the opening of the route to India, received a monopoly on maritime trade.
In addition, there was a skirmish over the Canary Islands.
By the time Columbus got tired of persuading the Portuguese to equip an expedition, Castile was ready for such an adventure.
Three caravels reached the Caribbean islands. During the first campaign, San Salvador, part of Haiti and Cuba were discovered. Later, several ships of workers and soldiers were transported. Initial plans for mountains of gold failed. Therefore, the systematic colonization of the population began. But we will talk about this later, when we talk about the conquistadors.
Indian Ocean
After the return of Columbus's first expedition, a diplomatic solution to the division of spheres of influence begins. To avoid conflict, the Pope issues a document defining Portuguese and Spanish possessions. But Juan II was dissatisfied with the decree. According to the bull, he was losing the newly discovered lands of Brazil, which were then considered the island of Vera Cruz.
Therefore, in 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed between the Castilian and Portuguese crowns. The border was two hundred and seventy leagues from Cape Verde. Everything to the east went to Portugal, everything to the west went to Spain.
The era of great geographical discoveries continued with expeditions in the Indian Ocean. In May 1498, Vasco da Gama's ships reached the southwestern coast of India. Today it is the state of Kerala.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the islands of Madagascar, Mauritius, and Sri Lanka were discovered. The Portuguese gradually developed new markets.
Pacific Ocean
As we mentioned earlier, the era of great geographical discoveries began with the search for a sea route to India. However, after Vasco da Gama's ships reached its coast, European expansion into the countries of the Far East began.
Here, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese discovered the markets of the Philippines, China and Japan.
At the other end of the Pacific Ocean, Balboa crosses the Isthmus of Panama and becomes the first Spaniard to see the “other sea.”
The next inevitable step was the exploration of new spaces, which led to the first circumnavigation of the Magellan expedition in 1519 - 1522.
Conquistadors
The navigators of the era of great geographical discoveries were not only engaged in the development of new lands. Often the pioneers were followed by waves of adventurers, entrepreneurs, and settlers in search of a better life.
After Christopher Columbus first set foot on the shores of one of the Caribbean islands, New World thousands of people crossed. The main reason was the misconception that they had reached India. But after expectations of treasures were not met, Europeans began to colonize the territories.
Juan de Leon, sailing from Costa Rica, discovered the coast of Florida in 1508. Hernan Cortes, on the orders of Velazquez, left Santiago de Cuba, where he was mayor, with a flotilla of eleven ships and five hundred soldiers. He needed to conquer the natives of Yucatan. There, as it turned out, there were two fairly powerful states - the Aztec and Mayan empires.
In August 1521, Cortés captured Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, and renamed it Mexico City. From now on, the empire became part of Spain.
New trade routes
The Age of Great Geographical Discovery gave Western Europe unexpected economic opportunities. New markets were opened, territories appeared from where treasures and slaves were imported for next to nothing.
Colonization of the western and eastern coasts of Africa, the Asian coast of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific territories allowed once small states to become world empires.
Japan, Philippines, China are open to European traders. The Portuguese even got their first colony there - Macau.
But the most important thing was that during the expansion to the west and east, expeditions began to meet. Ships sailing from modern Chile reached the coasts of Indonesia and the Philippines.
Thus, it was finally proven that our planet has the shape of a ball.
Gradually, sailors mastered the movement of the trade winds, the Gulf Stream. New ship models appeared. As a result of colonization, plantation farms were formed where slave labor was used.
Australia
The era of great geographical discoveries was marked not only by the search for a route to India. In short, humanity has begun to become acquainted with the planet. Once most of the coasts were known, only one question remained. What lurks in the south so massive that the northern continents do not outweigh it?
According to Aristotle, there was a certain continent - incognita terra australis ("unknown southern land").
After several erroneous reports, the Dutchman Janszoon finally landed in modern Queensland in 1603.
And in the forties of the seventeenth century, Abel Tasman discovered Tasmania and New Zealand.
Conquest of Siberia
The era of great geographical discoveries was marked not only by the exploration of America, Africa and Australia. A table of trophies and a map of the surrounding area of Lake Baikal speak of important discoveries made by Russian Cossacks.
So, in 1577, Ataman Ermak, financed by the Stroganovs, went to the east of Siberia. During the campaign, he inflicts a heavy defeat on the Siberian Khan Kuchum, but ultimately dies in one of the battles.
However, his case was not forgotten. Since the seventeenth century, after the end of the Time of Troubles, the systematic colonization of these lands began.
The Yenisei is being explored. Lena, Angara. In 1632, Yakutsk was founded. Subsequently, it will become the most important transit point on the way to the east.
In 1639, Ivan Moskvitin's expedition reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Kamchatka began to be developed only in the eighteenth century.
Results of the era of great geographical discoveries
The significance of the era of great geographical discoveries is difficult to overestimate.
First, there was a food revolution. Plants such as corn, tomatoes, potatoes, beans, pineapples and others came to Western Europe. A culture of drinking coffee and tea appears, and people take up smoking.
Precious metals from the New World quickly flooded the markets of “old Europe.” Along with the emergence of a large number of colonies, the era of imperialism begins.
In Western European countries, some trading houses are declining and others are rising. The Netherlands owe its rise to the era of geographical discoveries. In the sixteenth century, Antwerp became the main transshipment port for goods from Asia and America to other European countries.
Thus, in this article we have dealt with the course of geographical discoveries over the course of two hundred years. We talked about different directions of expeditions, learned the names famous navigators, as well as the opening times of some coasts and islands.
Good luck and new discoveries to you, dear readers!
This change occurred earlier, in Russia - later. The changes reflected increased production, which required new sources of raw materials and markets. They imposed new conditions on science and contributed to the general rise of the intellectual life of human society. Geography also acquired new features. Travel enriched science with facts. They were followed by generalizations. This sequence, although not absolutely noted, is characteristic of both Western European and Russian science.
The era of great discoveries of Western sailors. At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, outstanding geographical events took place over three decades: the voyages of the Genoese X. to the Bahamas, on, to the mouth of the Orinoco and on the coast Central America(1492-1504); around the South - the city of Callicut (1497-1498), F. and his companions (Juan Sebastian Elcano, Antonio Pigafetta, etc.) around and around South Africa(1519-1521) - the first circumnavigation of the world.
The three main search paths - and Magellan - ultimately had one goal: to reach by sea the richest space in the world - from and other areas of this vast space. In three different ways: directly to the west, around South America and around South Africa, the sailors bypassed the state of the Ottoman Turks, which blocked the Europeans' land routes to South Asia. It is characteristic that variants of these world routes were subsequently used many times by Russian navigators.
The era of great Russian discoveries. The heyday of Russian geographical discoveries occurred in the 16th-17th centuries. However, the Russians collected geographical information themselves and through their Western neighbors much earlier. Geographical data (from 852) is contained in the first Russian chronicle - “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor. Russian city-states, developing, were looking for new natural sources of wealth and markets for goods. Novgorod, in particular, grew richer. In the 12th century. Novgorodians reached the sea. Voyages began to the west to Scandinavia, to the north - to Grumant (Spitsbergen) and especially to the northeast - to Taz, where the Russians founded the trading city of Mangazeya (1601-1652). Somewhat earlier, movement to the east began overland, through Siberia (Ermak, 1581-1584).
The rapid movement into the depths of Siberia and towards the Pacific Ocean is a heroic feat. It took them a little more than half a century to cross the space from to the strait. In 1632 the Yakut fort was founded. In 1639, Ivan Moskvitin reaches the Pacific Ocean near Okhotsk. Vasily Poyarkov in 1643-1646. walked from to Yana and Indigirka, the first of the Russian Cossack explorers to sail along the Amur Estuary and the Sakhalin Bay of the Sea. In 1647-48. Erofey Khabarov passes to the Sungari. And finally, in 1648, Semyon Dezhnev goes around from the sea, discovers the cape that now bears his name, and proves that he is separated from North America by a strait.
Gradually, elements of generalization acquire great importance in Russian geography. In 1675, the Russian ambassador, the educated Greek Spafarius (1675-1678), was sent to the city with instructions to “depict all the lands, cities and the route on the drawing.” Drawings, i.e. maps were documents of state importance in Russia.
Early Russian is known for the following four of its works.
1. Large drawing Russian state. Compiled in one copy in 1552. The sources for it were “scribal books”. The Great Drawing has not reached us, although it was renewed in 1627. The geographer of Peter’s time V.N. wrote about its reality. Tatishchev.
2. Book of the Big Drawing - text for the drawing. One of late lists books published by N. Novikov in 1773
3. The drawing of the Siberian land was drawn up in 1667. It has reached us in copies. The drawing accompanies the “Manuscript against the drawing”.
4. The drawing book of Siberia was compiled in 1701 by order of Peter I in Tobolsk by S.U. Remizov and his sons. This is the first Russian geographical map of 23 with drawings of individual regions and settlements.
Thus, in Russia, too, the method of generalizations first became cartographic.
In the first half of the 18th century. Extensive geographical descriptions continued, but with an increasing importance of geographical generalizations. It is enough to list the main geographical events to understand the role of this period in the development of domestic geography. Firstly, an extensive long-term study of the Russian coast of the Arctic Ocean by detachments of the Great Northern Expedition of 1733-1743. and the expeditions of Vitus and Alexei Chirikov, who, during the First and Second Kamchatka Expeditions, discovered the sea route from to (1741) and described part of the northwestern coast of this continent and some of the Aleutian Islands. Secondly, in 1724 it was established Russian Academy Sciences with the Geographical Department in its composition (since 1739). This institution was headed by the successors of Peter I, the first Russian geographers V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) and M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). They became organizers of detailed geographical studies of the territory of Russia and themselves made a significant contribution to the development of theoretical geography and trained a galaxy of remarkable geographers and researchers. In 1742, M.V. Lomonosov wrote the first domestic essay with theoretical geographical content - “On the layers of the earth.” In 1755, two Russian classic monographs on regional studies were published: “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” by S.P. Krashennikov and “Orenburg Topography” by P.I. Rychkova. The Lomonosov period began in Russian geography - a time of reflection and generalizations.
Any modern man knows that there are six continents on Earth, this number includes North America, South America and Australia. They belong to the Great Geographical Discoveries. Nowadays, it is difficult to imagine life without such wonderful places as New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands. Now almost anyone has the opportunity to visit these parts of the planet for relatively little money. Has this always been the case? Of course not. There was a time when people did not even know about the existence of these places.
Periodization of the Great Geographical Discoveries
If we talk about defining the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries, they occurred at the end of the 15th – mid-17th centuries. Let's see why these discoveries are called “Great”. This name is due to the fact that they had special significance for the destinies of our world in general, and Europe in particular.
Great geographical discoveries were made at their own peril and risk, because travelers did not know what exactly awaited them. The only thing they clearly understood was the importance of their wanderings. There were enough reasons. Let's take a closer look at some of them.
The Age of Discovery is divided into two periods:
- Spanish-Portuguese period (late 15th – mid-16th century) The most famous and, of course, the most important discoveries during this period were: the discovery of America (the first expedition of Christopher Columbus in 1492); discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gamma (1497–1498); F. Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world (1519–1522).
- The period of Russian and Dutch discoveries (mid-16th – mid-17th century V). It usually includes: The discovery by Russians of all of Northern Asia (from Ermak’s campaign to the voyage of Popov-Dezhnev in 1648), the Dutch Pacific expeditions and the discovery of Australia.
Reasons and prerequisites for the Great Geographical Discoveries
There were only three main reasons for the Great Geographical Discoveries. One of their premises was primarily justified by the economic development of Europe. Towards the end of the 15th century. European trade with the countries of the East was experiencing a great crisis. The crisis was caused by the fact that a new harsh state appeared in the vast expanses of Asia Minor - the Ottoman Empire.
Therefore, the trade routes of the Mediterranean were completely cut off, because previously they passed through the disappeared Byzantium. In the 15th century In the countries of Western Europe, people needed gold and silver as a means of circulation, and because of the crisis they felt an acute shortage. The impoverished nobility at that time was in search of both gold itself and new trade routes. This nobility made up the bulk of the conquerors, who were also called conquistadors. The state, realizing its precarious position, was forced to make concessions and allocate funds for sea expeditions.
Moreover, an important reason for the Great Geographical Discoveries was Europe's significant advances in science and technology. First of all, the development in the construction of improved ships and also the navigation technology itself. In the XIV–XV centuries. The first caravel was created - a fairly fast ship that had spacious holds.
The importance of the caravel was that it was intended for ocean navigation. From a scientific point of view, at the same time, the hypothesis was approved that the Earth has the shape of a ball, which helped in orientation. Geographic Maps were rewritten with new introductions, and the compass and astrolabe were greatly improved. All these discoveries took place along with, for example, the invention of clocks and chronology. For more details, see the article.
Great travelers and their geographical discoveries
Everyone knows that the great Spanish navigator H. Columbus in the 1490s discovered America, which was very important and necessary for Europe at that time. In total, he made four voyages to the “new land.” Moreover, his discoveries include: Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, the land from Dominica to the Virgin Islands, as well as Trinidad and the wonderful Bahamas. Columbus really wanted to discover India. Because for a long time in Europe, people believed that there was a lot of gold in fabulous India. By the way, these beliefs were started by the legendary Marco Polo.
But it so happened that Columbus discovered America.
And you will immediately ask: “Why then is America called “America” and not Colombia?! Where is the copyright!” I answer immediately: there are persistent rumors that a certain Amerigo Vespucci, one of the clerks of the house of Medici (who provided money for voyages across the oceans), discovered the continent of the New World a year and a half before Columbus. Everything seems to be ironclad, but unfortunately there is no evidence of this. If anyone knows, write in the comments, otherwise we haven’t figured it out with Newton yet 😉 But the country is named after Columbus - Colombia.
Other fun historical facts you can.
We also cannot forget about Ferdinand Magellan, who discovered the strait, which was later named after him. He became the first European to travel by sea from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. But his most famous trip is around the world. The great Portuguese and Spanish navigator was awarded the title adelantado, translated as “pioneer,” whom the king himself directed to conquer new lands.
Vasco da Gama's journey to India through the south of the African continent
But not only the West participated in new discoveries, Russian expeditions were also quite important. Great importance at that time there was annexation of Siberia. It was started in 1581 by the campaign of a detachment of the well-known Cossack chieftain Ermak Timofeevich. Ermak’s campaign, with the help of government approval, contributed to the annexation Western Siberia to the Russian state. Actually, starting from this time, Siberia and Far East became colonies of the Moscow kingdom. These Europeans sailed the seas, died of scurvy and hunger..., and the Russians “without bothering” found another way.
One of the most significant was the discovery in 1648 of the strait between America and Asia, which was made by Semyon Dezhnev together with Fedot Alekseev (Popov).
Russian ambassadors played a significant role in improving maps and routes. The most famous include I.D. Khokhlov and Anisim Gribov. They participated in the description and study of routes to Central Asia.
Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries
Geographical discoveries led to certain world changes. Firstly, there was a “price revolution”. The value plummeted due to the influx of gold and silver, which led to an immediate rise in prices. This caused new economic problems. Secondly, world trade expanded significantly and began to strengthen.
This happened thanks to new products such as tobacco, coffee, cocoa, tea, rice, sugar and potatoes, which Europeans had not heard of before. Due to their inclusion in trade, the volume of trade increased greatly. Thirdly, the development of new lands and travel across the ocean contributed to the strengthening and improvement of international relations. The only thing negative consequence this was the beginning of colonization; everything else, in principle, had a positive effect on the world order.
In conclusion, I would like to say that the progress of mankind depends on many reasons, but the most important is the desire to improve living conditions. Thanks to the Great Geographical Discoveries, new lands were developed in a relatively short time, relations between peoples were established, and trade turnover was improved. The era of VGO went down in history as one of major events in the life of humanity.
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© Alexander Chudinov
Editing by Andrey Puchkov
Geographical discoveries
People have traveled and made discoveries at all times, but during the history of mankind there was a period when the number of travelers and their discoveries increased sharply - the Age of Discovery.
Great geographical discoveries are a period in human history that began in the 15th century and lasted until the 17th century, during which new lands and sea routes were discovered. Thanks to the brave expeditions of seafarers and travelers from many countries, most of the earth's surface, seas and oceans washing it. The most important sea routes were laid that connected the continents with each other.
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The relevance of the topic is due to the fact that economic development our country should be based on a preliminary analysis of historical information, that is, it is necessary to recognize the importance of the territories that were conquered by our ancestors.
The purpose of this work is to consider the expeditions and geographical discoveries of domestic researchers and scientists. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:
· briefly characterize the economic and political situation of the country in a certain period of time;
· indicate the names of Russian travelers and discoverers of the era of great geographical discoveries;
· describe the discoveries of new lands and routes.
Development sites. Discoverers
At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, the formation of the Russian state, which developed along with world civilization, was completed. This was the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries (America was discovered in 1493), the beginning of the era of capitalism in European countries (the first in Europe began in the Netherlands bourgeois revolution 1566-1609). The Great Geographical Discoveries are a period in human history that began in the 15th century and lasted until the 17th century, during which Europeans discovered new lands and sea routes to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania in search of new trading partners and sources of goods that were in great demand in Europe. Historians generally associate the "Great Discovery" with the pioneering long sea voyages of Portuguese and Spanish explorers in search of alternative trade routes to the "Indies" for gold, silver and spices. But the development of the Russian state took place in rather unique conditions.
The Russian people contributed to the great geographical discoveries of the 16th century - the first half XVII V. significant contribution. Russian travelers and navigators made a number of discoveries (mainly in northeast Asia), which enriched world science. The reason for the increased attention of Russians to geographical discoveries was further development commodity-money relations in the country and the associated process of folding all-Russian market, as well as the gradual inclusion of Russia in the world market. During this period, two main directions were clearly outlined: northeastern (Siberia and the Far East) and southeastern ( middle Asia, Mongolia, China), along which Russian travelers and sailors moved. Trade and diplomatic trips of Russian people in the 16th-17th centuries were of great educational importance for contemporaries. to the countries of the East, surveying the shortest land routes for communication with the states of Central and Central Asia and China.
In the middle of the 16th century, the Muscovite kingdom conquered the Kazan and Astrakhan Tatar khanates, thus annexing the Volga region to its possessions and opening the way to the Ural Mountains. The colonization of new eastern lands and the further advance of Russia to the east were directly organized by the wealthy merchants the Stroganovs. Tsar Ivan the Terrible granted huge estates in the Urals and tax privileges to Anikei Stroganov, who organized large-scale resettlement of people to these lands. The Stroganovs developed agriculture, hunting, salt making, fishing and mining in the Urals, and also established trade relations with the Siberian peoples. There was a process of development of new territories of Siberia (from the 1580s to the 1640s), the Volga region, and the Wild Field (on the Dnieper, Don, Middle and Lower Volga, and Yaik rivers).
Great geographical discoveries contributed to the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age.
Conquest of Siberia by Ermak Timofeevich
Of great importance in the history of geographical discoveries of this era was the exploration of the vast expanses of the north and northeast of Asia from the Ural Range to the coast of the Arctic and Pacific oceans, i.e. all over Siberia.
The process of conquering Siberia included the gradual advance of Russian Cossacks and servicemen to the East until they reached the Pacific Ocean and consolidated their position in Kamchatka. The routes of movement of the Cossacks were predominantly water. Getting acquainted with river systems, they walked by dry route exclusively in places of the watershed, where, having crossed the ridge and arranged new boats, they descended along the tributaries of new rivers. Upon arrival in an area occupied by a tribe of natives, the Cossacks entered into peace negotiations with them with a proposal to submit to the White Tsar and pay tribute, but these negotiations did not always lead to successful results, and then the matter was decided by force of arms.
The annexation of Siberia began in 1581 with the campaign of a detachment of the Cossack ataman Ermak Timofeevich. His detachment, consisting of 840 people, carried away by rumors about the untold riches of the Siberian Khanate, was equipped with funds from the large landowners and salt industrialists of the Urals, the Stroganovs.
On September 1, 1581, the detachment boarded plows and climbed the tributaries of the Kama to the Tagil Pass in the Ural Mountains. With an ax in their hands, the Cossacks made their own way, cleared rubble, felled trees, and cut a clearing. They did not have the time and energy to level the rocky path, as a result of which they could not drag the ships along the ground using rollers. According to the participants of the hike, they dragged the ships up the mountain “on themselves,” in other words, in their arms. At the pass, the Cossacks built an earthen fortification - Kokui-town, where they spent the winter until spring.
The first skirmish between the Cossacks and the Siberian Tatars took place in the area of the modern city of Turinsk (Sverdlovsk region), where the warriors of Prince Epanchi fired at Ermak’s plows with bows. Here Ermak, with the help of arquebuses and cannons, dispersed the cavalry of Murza Epanchi. Then the Cossacks occupied the town of Changi-Tura (Tyumen region) without a fight. On the site of modern Tyumen, many treasures were taken: silver, gold and precious Siberian furs.
November 8, 1582 AD Ataman Ermak Timofeevich occupied Kashlyk, the then capital of the Siberian Khanate. Four days later the Khanty from the river. Demyanka (Uvat district), brought furs and food supplies, mainly fish, as gifts to the conquerors. Ermak greeted them with “kindness and greetings” and released them “with honor.” Local Tatars, who had previously fled from the Russians, followed the Khanty with gifts. Ermak received them just as kindly, allowed them to return to their villages and promised to protect them from enemies, primarily from Kuchum. Then the Khanty from the left bank regions - from the Konda and Tavda rivers - began to appear with furs and food. Ermak imposed an annual obligatory tax on everyone who came to him - yasak.
At the end of 1582, Ermak sent an embassy to Moscow, led by his faithful assistant Ivan Koltso, to notify the Tsar of the defeat of Kuchum. Tsar Ivan IV gave the Cossack delegation of Ivan the Ring a gracious welcome, generously presented the envoys - among the gifts was chain mail of excellent work - and sent them back to Ermak.
In the winter of 1584-1585, the temperature in the vicinity of Kashlyk dropped to -47°, and icy northern winds began to blow. Deep snow made hunting in the taiga forests impossible. In hungry winter times, wolves gathered in large packs and appeared near human dwellings. Sagittarius did not survive the Siberian winter. They died without exception, without taking part in the war with Kuchum. Semyon Bolkhovskoy himself, who was appointed the first governor of Siberia, also died. After a hungry winter, the number of Ermak’s detachment fell catastrophically. To save the surviving people, Ermak tried to avoid clashes with the Tatars.
On the night of August 6, 1585, Ermak died along with a small detachment at the mouth of Vagai. Only one Cossack managed to escape, and he brought the sad news to Kashlyk. The Cossacks and servicemen who remained in Kashlyk gathered a circle in which they decided not to spend the winter in Siberia.
At the end of September 1585, 100 servicemen arrived in Kashlyk under the command of Ivan Mansurov, sent to help Ermak. They didn’t find anyone in Kashlyk. When trying to return from Siberia along the path of their predecessors - down the Ob and further “through Kamen” - the servicemen were forced, due to “freezing of the ice,” to place a “city over the Ob opposite the mouth of the river” of the Irtysh and “sedosh winter” there. Having withstood a siege here “from many Ostyaks,” the people of Ivan Mansurov returned from Siberia in the summer of 1586.
The third detachment, which arrived in the spring of 1586 and consisted of 300 people under the leadership of governors Vasily Sukin and Ivan Myasny, brought with them the “written head Danilo Chulkov” “to conduct business” on the spot. The expedition, judging by its results, was carefully prepared and equipped. To establish the power of the Russian government in Siberia, she had to found the first Siberian government fort and the Russian city of Tyumen.
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China Study. The first voyages of Russian sailors
Close attention Distant China evoked among the Russian people. Back in 1525, while in Rome, the Russian ambassador Dmitry Gerasimov informed the writer Pavel Jovius that it was possible to travel from Europe to China by water through the northern seas. Thus, Gerasimov expressed a bold idea about the development of the Northern Route from Europe to Asia. Thanks to Jovius, who published a special book about Muscovy and Gerasimov’s embassy, this idea became widely known in Western Europe and was received with keen interest. It is possible that the organization of the Willoughby and Barents expeditions was prompted by messages from the Russian ambassador. In any case, the search for the Northern Sea Route to the east already in the middle of the 16th century. led to the establishment of direct maritime connections between Western Europe and Russia.
Back in the middle of the 16th century. Mention is made of the voyages of Russian polar sailors from the European part of the country to the Gulf of Ob and to the mouth of the Yenisei. They moved along the coast of the Arctic Ocean on small keel sailing ships - kochas, well adapted to sailing in the Arctic ice thanks to the egg-shaped hull, which reduced the danger of ice compression.
The 16th century is known for the reign of the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. Special attention I would like to point out oprichnina politics the then ruler. State terror agitated the population, “famine and pestilence” reigned in the country, peasants fled from the bankrupt landowners and “worried among the yard.” It can be assumed that it was the runaway peasants who became the “discoverers” of new lands, and only later higher-status individuals made “discoveries” at the state level.
Most likely, in the 16th century, Russian travel, which resulted in geographical discoveries, experienced a period of “emergence”. The first attempts to travel to other countries and new lands were made. One of the most important and promising was the conquest of Siberia by Ermak. But our ancestors did not stop there; they also tried their hand at traveling on water. No great discoveries have yet been made in this industry, but already in the 17th century certain successes were made.
There were a sufficient number of factors stimulating people to further develop new lands, the main one being the lack of access to the seas.
Main travel destinations of the 17th century
"Mangazeya move." Penda's hike
Already in the first two decades of the 17th century, there was a fairly regular water connection between Western Siberian cities and Mangazeya along the Ob, Ob Bay and the Arctic Ocean (the so-called “Mangazeya passage”). The same communication was maintained between Arkhangelsk and Mangazeya. According to contemporaries, “many commercial and industrial people travel from Arkhangelsk to Mangazeya throughout the years with all sorts of German (i.e., foreign, Western European) goods and bread.” It was extremely important to establish the fact that the Yenisei flows into the same “Icy Sea” along which they sail from Western Europe to Arkhangelsk. This discovery belongs to the Russian trader Kondraty Kurochkin, who was the first to explore the fairway of the lower Yenisei right up to the mouth.
Serious blow The “Mangazeya move” was caused by government bans in 1619-1620. use the sea route to Mangazeya, with the goal of preventing foreigners from entering there.
Moving east into the taiga and tundra of Eastern Siberia, the Russians discovered one of largest rivers Asia - Lena. Among the northern expeditions to the Lena, Penda's campaign (before 1630) stands out. Starting his journey with 40 companions from Turukhansk, he walked throughout the entire Lower Tunguska, crossed the portage and reached the Lena. Having descended along the Lena to the central regions of Yakutia, Penda then swam along the same river in the opposite direction almost to the upper reaches. From here, having passed through the Buryat steppes, he came to the Angara (Upper Tunguska), the first of the Russians to sail down the entire Angara, overcoming its famous rapids, after which he went to the Yenisei, and along the Yenisei he returned to his starting point - Turu-Khansk. Penda and his companions made an unprecedented circular journey of several thousand kilometers through difficult terrain.
Petlin's mission
The first reliable evidence of travel to China is information about the embassy of the Cossack Ivan Petlin in 1618-1619. (Petlin's mission). The trip was made on the initiative of the Tobolsk governor, Prince I. S. Kurakin. The mission of 12 people was led by Tomsk Cossacks teacher Ivan Petlin (who spoke several languages) and A. Madov. The mission was tasked with describing new routes to China, collecting information about it and neighboring countries, and also establishing the sources of the Ob River. In China, Petlin was supposed to announce where the mission had come from and find out the possibility of establishing further relations with China.
Having left Tomsk on May 9, 1618, together with the ambassadors of the Mongolian “Tsar Altyn,” the mission climbed the Tom Valley, crossed Mountain Shoria, crossed the Abakan ridge, the Western Sayan Mountains and entered Tuva. Then she crossed the upper reaches of the Kemchik (the Yenisei basin), crossed several ridges and reached the slightly salty mountain lake Uureg-Nuur. Turning east and descending into the steppe, three weeks after leaving Tomsk, the mission arrived at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan at the closed Lake Usap.
From here the travelers moved to the southeast, crossed the Khan-Khuhei - the northwestern spur of the Khangai Range - and the Khangai itself - and walked about 800 km along its southern slopes. At the bend of the Kerulen River we turned southeast and crossed the Gobi Desert. Before reaching Kalgan, Petlin saw the Great Wall of China for the first time.
At the end of August, the mission reached Beijing, where it negotiated with representatives of the Ming Dynasty government.
Due to the lack of gifts, Petlin was not received by Emperor Zhu Yijun, but received his official letter addressed to the Russian Tsar with permission for the Russians to again send embassies and trade in China; As for diplomatic relations, it was proposed to conduct them through correspondence. The charter remained untranslated for decades until Spafariy ( Russian diplomat and scientist; known for his scientific works and embassy to China) did not study it in preparation for his embassy. The common expression Chinese letter refers specifically to this document, which was in the embassy order, and the contents of which remained a mystery.
Returning to his homeland, Ivan Petlin presented in Moscow “a drawing and painting about the Chinese region.” His mission was of great importance, and the report on the trip - “Painting to the Chinese state and Lobinsky, and other states, residential and nomadic, and uluses, and the great Ob, and rivers and roads” - became the most valuable, most full description China, containing information about the land route from Europe to China through Siberia and Mongolia. Already in the first half of the 17th century, “Painting” was translated into all European languages. The information collected as a result of Petlin’s trip about the routes to China, about the natural resources and economy of Mongolia and China contributed to expanding the geographical horizons of his contemporaries.
Russian discoveries in the Pacific Ocean. Explorers of Siberia
The conquest of Siberia was accompanied by a very rapid expansion of geographical horizons. Less than 60 years had passed since Ermak's campaign (1581-1584), when the Russians crossed the entire continent of Asia from the Ural Range to the eastern borders of this part of the world: in 1639, the Russians first appeared on the shores of the Pacific Ocean.
Moskvitin's campaign (1639-1642)
Ataman Dmitry Kopylov, sent from Tomsk to the Lena, founded a winter hut in 1637 at the confluence of the Map and Aldan. In 1639 he sent the Cossack Ivan Moskvitin. They crossed the ridge and reached the Sea of Okhotsk at the mouth of the river. Uli, west of present-day Okhotsk. In the coming years, people from Moskvitin’s detachment scouted the shore Sea of Okhotsk to the east to Tauyskaya Bay, and to the south along the river. Ouds. From the mouth, the Cossacks went further east, towards the mouth of the Amur. He returned to Yakutsk in 1642.
Dezhnev's campaign (1648)
The Yakut Cossack, a native of Ustyug, Semyon Dezhnev, passed through the Bering Strait for the first time. On June 20, 1648, he left the mouth of the Kolyma to the east. In September, the researcher rounded the Big Stone Nose - now Cape Dezhnev - where he saw Eskimos. Opposite the cape he saw two islands. This refers to the Diomede or Gvozdev Islands located in the Bering Strait, on which the Eskimos lived then, as now. Then storms began, which carried Dezhnev’s boats across the sea until, after October 1, they were thrown south of the mouth of Anadyr; It took 10 weeks to walk from the crash site to this river. In the summer of the following year, Dezhnev built a winter quarters on the middle reaches of the Anadyr - later the Anadyr fort.
"Parcels" by Remezov
Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov - cartographer, historian and ethnographer, can rightfully be considered the first explorer of the Trans-Urals. Traveling on behalf of the Tobolsk authorities to collect rent throughout the central part of the West Siberian Plain and some other areas of the eastern slope of the Urals, i.e. being, as he put it, “on the premises,” he created a scheme for studying these territories, which was later implemented in an expanded form during the work of the Academic detachments of the Great Northern Expedition. At first, the description of the places visited was a secondary matter for Remezov. But since 1696, when he, as part of a military detachment, spent six months (April-September) in the waterless and impassable stone steppe beyond the river. Ishim, this activity became the main one. In the winter of 1696-1697. with two assistants he completed a survey of the Tobol basin. He plotted the main river from its mouth to the top, photographed its large tributaries - the Tura, Tavda, Iset and a number of rivers flowing into them, including the Miass and Pyshma.
The river also received a cartographic image. Irtysh from its confluence with the Ob to the mouth of the river. Tara and its three tributaries. In 1701, Remezov completed the compilation of the “Drawing Book of Siberia”. She played a huge role not only in the history of Russian, but also world cartography.
Discovery of Kamchatka by Atlasov
Information about Kamchatka was first received in the mid-17th century, through the Koryaks. But the honor of discovery and geographical description belongs to Vladimir Atlasov.
In 1696, Luka Morozko was sent from Anadyrsk to the Koryaks on the Opuka River (Opuka flows into the Berengov Sea). He penetrated much further south, precisely to the river. Tigil. At the beginning of 1697, Atlasov set off from Anadyrsk. From the mouth of the Penzhina we walked for two weeks on reindeer along the western shore of Kamchatka, and then turned east, to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, to the Koryaks - Olyutorians, who sit along the river. Olyutore. In February 1697, on Olyutor, Atlasov divided his detachment into two parts: the first went along east coast Kamchatka to the south, and the second part went with him to the west bank, to the river. Palan (flows into the Sea of Okhotsk), from here to the mouth of the river. Tigil, and finally, on the river. Kamchatka, where he arrived on July 18, 1697. Here they first met the Kamchadals. From here Atlasov walked south along the western shore of Kamchatka and reached the river. Golygina, where the Kuril Islands lived. From the mouth of this river he saw the islands, meaning the northernmost of the Kuril Islands. From Golygina Atlasov across the river. Ichu returned to Anadyrsk, where he arrived on July 2, 1699. This is how Kamchatka was discovered. Atlasov made a geographical description of it.
Hiking E.P. Khabarova and I.V. Poryakova on Amur
Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov continued the work begun by another explorer, V.D. Poyarkov. Khabarov was from Veliky Ustyug (according to other sources, from Solvychegodsk). Life in his homeland was difficult, and debts forced Khabarov to go to the distant lands of Siberia. In 1632 he arrived on Lena. For several years he was engaged in the fur trade, and in 1641 he settled on empty land at the mouth of the river. Kirenga is the right tributary of the Lena. Here he started arable land, built a mill and a salt pan. But the Yakut governor P. Golovin took away both the arable land and the salt pan from Khabarov and transferred them to the treasury, and Khabarov himself was imprisoned. Only in 1645 did Khabarov leave prison “naked as a falcon.” In 1649, he arrived in the Ilimsk fort, where the Yakut governor stopped for the winter. Here Khabarov learned about the expedition of V.D. Poyarkov and asked permission to organize his expedition to Dauria, to which he received consent.
In 1649, Khabarov and his detachment climbed up the Lena and Olekma to the mouth of the river. Tungir. In the spring of 1650 they reached the river. Urki, a tributary of the Amur, fell into the possession of the Daurian prince Lavkay. The cities of the Daurs were abandoned by people. Each city had hundreds of houses, and each house housed 50 or more people. The houses were bright, with wide windows covered with oiled paper. Rich grain reserves were stored in the pits. Prince Lavkay himself was found near the walls of the third city, equally empty. It turned out that the Daurs, having heard about the detachment, got scared and fled. From the stories of the Daurs, the Cossacks learned that on the other side of the Amur lies a country richer than Dauria and that the Daurs pay tribute to the Manchu prince Bogdoy. And that prince had large ships with goods sailing along the rivers, and he had an army with cannons and arquebuses.
Khabarov understood that the forces of his detachment were small and he would not be able to capture the region where the population was hostile. Leaving about 50 Cossacks in the town of Lavkaya, in May 1650 Khabarov returned to Yakutsk for help. A report on the campaign and a drawing of Dauria were sent to Moscow. And Khabarov began to assemble a new detachment for a trip to Dauria. In the fall of 1650, he returned to the Amur and found the Cossacks abandoned near the fortified town of Albazin. The prince of this city refused to pay tribute, and the Cossacks tried to take the city by storm. With the help of Khabarov's detachment that arrived in time, the Daurs were defeated. The Cossacks captured many prisoners and large booty.
One of important stages in the history of human development is the era of pioneers. Maps with the seas marked on them are refined, ships are improved, and leaders send their sailors to capture new lands.
In contact with
Feature of the era
The term “great geographical discoveries” conventionally unites historical events, starting from the mid-15th century and ending in the mid-17th. Europeans were actively exploring new lands.
The emergence of this era had its own prerequisites: the search for new trade routes and the development of navigation. Until the 15th century, the British already knew North America and Iceland. History included many famous travelers, among whom were Afanasy Nikitin, Rubrik and others.
Important! Began great era geographical discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, this event occurred at the beginning of the 15th century.
First achievements
Geographical science at that time was in serious decline. Lone sailors tried to share their discoveries with the public, but this did not produce results, and there was more fiction in their stories than truth. Data about what and who discovered at sea or on the coastal strip was lost and forgotten; no one had updated the maps for a long time. The skippers were simply afraid to go out to sea, because not everyone had navigation skills.
Henry built a citadel near Cape Sagres, created a school of navigation and sent expeditions, collecting information about the winds at sea, distant peoples and shores. The period of great geographical discoveries began with his activities.
Among the discoveries of Portuguese travelers are:
- Madeira Island,
- West Coast of Africa,
- Cape Verde,
- Cape of Good Hope,
- Azores,
- Congo River.
Why was it necessary to find new lands?
The list of reasons for the advent of the era of navigation includes:
- active development of crafts and trade;
- the growth of European cities during the 15th and 16th centuries;
- depletion of known precious metals mines;
- the development of maritime navigation and the appearance of the compass;
- interruption of economic ties between Southern Europe and China and India after .
Important points
Significant periods that have gone down in history, times when famous travelers made their trips and expeditions:
The Age of Discovery began in 1492, when America was discovered;
- 1500 - exploration of the mouth of the Amazon;
- 1513 - Vasco de Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean;
- 1519-1553 – conquest of South America;
- 1576-1629 – Russian campaigns in Siberia;
- 1603-1638 - exploration of Canada;
- 1642-1643 – visit to Tasmania and New Zealand;
- 1648 – exploration of Kamchatka.
Conquest of South America
Spanish and Portuguese sailors
Simultaneously with the Portuguese sea travel Famous travelers of Spain are beginning to undertake this. , having good knowledge of geography and navigation, suggested that the country's rulers reach India by another route, heading west across the Atlantic Ocean. The one who later discovered many new lands was given three caravels, on which brave sailors left the port on August 3, 1492.
By the beginning of October they arrived at the first island, which became known as San Salvador, and later they discovered Haiti and Cuba. It was Columbus's seminal voyage that put the Caribbean islands on the map. Then there were two more, pointing the way to Central and South America.
Christopher Columbus - a mysterious person
First he visited the island of Cuba, and only then discovered America. Columbus was surprised to meet a civilized people on the island who had a rich culture and grew cotton, tobacco and potatoes. The cities were decorated with large statues and large buildings.
Interesting! Everyone knows the name of Christopher Columbus. However, very little is known about his life and travels.
The birth of this legendary navigator is still debated. Several cities claim to be considered the birthplace of Columbus, but this cannot be determined for certain. He took part in cruises on ships Mediterranean Sea, and later went on major expeditions from his native Portugal.
Ferdinand Magellan
Magellan was also from Portugal. Born in 1480. Early on, he was left without parents and tried to survive on his own by working as a messenger. Since childhood, he was attracted by the sea, attracted by the thirst for travel and discovery.
At the age of 25, Ferdinand set sail for the first time. He quickly learned the maritime profession while staying off the coast of India, and soon became a captain. He wanted to return to his homeland, talking about profitable cooperation with the East, but he achieved results only with the coming to power of Charles the First.
Important! The era of great geographical discoveries began in the middle of the 15th century. Magellan warned her advance by committing trip around the world.
In 1493, Magellan leads an expedition west of Spain. He has a goal: to prove that the islands there belong to his country. No one thought that the journey would become around the world, and the navigator would discover many new things along the way. The one who opened the way to the “South Sea” did not return home, but died in the Philippines. His team arrived home only in 1522.
Russian discoverers
Representatives of Russia and their discoveries joined the orderly ranks of famous European navigators. Several people made great contributions to improving the world map. outstanding personalities that are worth knowing about.
Thaddeus Bellingshausen
Bellingshausen was the first who dared to lead an expedition to the uncharted shores of Antarctica, and around the world. This event took place in 1812. The navigator set out to prove or disprove the existence of a sixth continent, which was only talked about. The expedition crossed the Indian Ocean, the Pacific, and the Atlantic. Its participants made a great contribution to the development of geography. The expedition under the command of Captain 2nd Rank Bellingshausen lasted 751 days.
Interesting! Previously, attempts were made to reach Antarctica, but they all failed; only famous Russian travelers turned out to be luckier and more persistent.
The navigator Bellingshausen went down in history as the discoverer of many species of animals and more than 20 large islands. The captain was one of the few who managed to find his own path, follow it and not destroy obstacles.
Nikolai Przhevalsky
Among the Russian travelers was the one who discovered most of Central Asia. Nikolai Przhevalsky always dreamed of visiting unknown Asia. This continent attracted him. The navigator led each of the four expeditions that explored Central Asia. Curiosity led to the discovery and study of mountain systems such as the Kun Lun and the ridges of Northern Tibet. The sources of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, as well as Lob-nora and Kuhu-nora, were explored. Nikolai was the second explorer after Marco Polo to reach Lop Nor.
Przhevalsky, like other travelers of the era of great geographical discoveries, considered himself a happy man, because fate gave him the opportunity to explore the mysterious countries of the Asian world. Many species of animals that he described during his travels are named after him.
The first Russian circumnavigation
Ivan Krusenstern and his colleague Yuri Lisyansky firmly inscribed their names in the history of great discoveries in geography. They led the first expedition around the globe, which lasted more than three years - from 1803 to 1806. During this period, sailors on two ships crossed the Atlantic, sailed through Cape Horn, after which they arrived in Kamchatka through the waters of the Pacific Ocean. There, researchers studied the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin Island. Their coastline was clarified, and data on all the waters visited by the expedition was also included on the map. Krusenstern compiled an atlas of the Pacific Ocean.
The expedition under the command of the admiral became the first to cross the equator. This event was celebrated in accordance with traditions.
Exploration of the Eurasian continent
Eurasia is a huge continent, but it is problematic to name the only person who discovered it.
One moment is surprising. If everything is clear with America and Antarctica, the famous names of the great navigators are reliably inscribed in the history of their existence, then the laurels of the man who discovered Europe never went to him, because he simply does not exist.
If we ignore the search for one navigator, we can list many names who contributed to the study of the surrounding world and took part in expeditions on the mainland and its coastal zone. Europeans are accustomed to consider themselves only explorers of Eurasia, but Asian navigators and their discoveries are no less in scale.
Historians know which of the Russian writers traveled around the world, except for the famous navigators. He was Ivan Goncharov, who took part in the expedition on a military sailing ship. His impressions of the trip resulted in a large collection of diaries describing distant countries.
The meaning of cartography
People could hardly move across the sea without good navigation. Previously, their main reference point was the starry sky at night and the sun during the day. Many maps during the period of great geographical discoveries were dependent on the sky. Since the 17th century, a map has been preserved on which the scientist plotted all the known coastal zones and continents, but Siberia and North America remained unknown, because no one knew how far they were and how far the continents themselves extended.
The most information-rich atlases were those of Gerard van Coelen. Captains and famous travelers crossing the Atlantic were grateful for the details of Iceland, Holland and Labrador being mapped.
Unusual information
Interesting facts about travelers have been preserved in history:
- James Cook became the first person to visit all six continents.
- Navigators and their discoveries changed the appearance of many lands, for example, James Cook brought sheep to the islands of Tahiti and New Zealand.
- Before his revolutionary activities, Che Guevara was an amateur motorcycle rider; he took a 4,000-kilometer tour around South America.
- Charles Darwin traveled on a ship where he wrote his greatest work on evolution. But they didn’t want to take the man on board, and it was the shape of the nose. It seemed to the captain that such a person would not be able to cope with a long load. Darwin had to be away from the team and buy his own uniform.
Age of Great Geographical Discoveries 15th - 17th centuries
Great Discoverers
Conclusion
Thanks to the heroism and determination of sailors, people received valuable information about the world. This was the impetus for many changes, contributed to the development of trade, the industrial sector, and the strengthening of relationships with other nations. The most important thing is that it has been practically proven that it has a round shape.