Iconography in Rus'. Revival and tradition

general characteristics Russian icon painting of the 9th-16th centuries.

The Russian school is organically connected by many threads of primitiveness with Byzantine art. Already from the end of the 10th century, samples Byzantine icon painting began to reach Rus' and became not only an object of worship, but also an object of imitation, but Russian icon painting was not a simple offshoot of Byzantine. For a long time it was in the orbit of its gravity, but since the 12th century the process of its emancipation has been in progress. Over the centuries, local traits accumulated gradually transformed into a new quality, marked by an initial national identity. This was a long process; it took place most intensively in the North in the cities of Pskov and Novgorod. Their remoteness from Byzantium and the republican mode of government made it possible to pose and solve various problems; in addition, in the northern regions, not affected by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, traditions folk art they held on especially tightly and powerfully reminded themselves of themselves in the 13th century, when ties with Byzantium almost ceased. Within the Moscow principality, the process of emancipation proceeded more slowly. Since the era of Andrei Rublev, Moscow icon painting has also acquired its own face. From this moment on, we have reason to talk about Old Russian icon painting as a fully established national school. The main icon painting schools were Novgorod, Pskov, and Moscow. Rus' inherited all the main iconographic types from Byzantium.

Russian people considered icon painting as the most perfect of the arts. The icon trick, we read in one source of the 14th century, was invented neither by Indian Gyges... nor by the Egyptians, nor by the Corinthians, but by the Lord himself, who decorated the sky with stars and the earth with beautiful flowers. The icon was treated with the greatest respect. It was considered indecent to talk about the sale or purchase of icons. Instead of “the icon burned down,” they said: the icon disappeared. The icon was surrounded by a halo of enormous moral authority. The Church believed that an icon could only be made with “clean hands.” IN mass consciousness the thought of a Russian icon painter was invariably associated with the image of a moral, pure Christian and was in no way reconciled with the image of a female icon painter. Until the 16th century, the Russian icon painter religiously protected the ancient tradition of icon painting from the penetration of Western realistic elements into it. For him, the school had to be sublime in its structure, it had to soar above sensory reality, its images had to embody the high ideals of a pure and moral life.

In Russian icon painting of the 15th century, the figures of saints are always depicted as ethereal, they are dressed in wide, indefinitely cut clothes, they have rounded faces, in which there is nothing portrait-like.

The courtly principle, which makes itself felt so strongly in mature Gothic painting, is completely absent in icon painting: Mary always remains the Mother of God. If the figures are united by the landscape, then the latter is reduced to the simplest forms. Russian icon painting of the 16th century is a holy and joyful art. Byzantine contemplation, and the expressiveness of Gothic is intensified. It is no coincidence that the most popular theme of Russian icon painting of the 15th century was “Tenderness”. An icon depicting a mother caressing her son is one of the pinnacles of Russian artistic creativity. Neither French Gothic nor Italian Renaissance they failed to convey an image of great warmth into this. They created human images, but not soulful ones. Russian icons “Tenderness” live up to their name, because when the viewer looks at them, the viewer feels a feeling of deep tenderness. The individuality of the Russian icon painter was most clearly manifested in his understanding of color. Paint is the true soul of Russian icon painting of the 15th century. If we see an icon in one-color reproduction, then we lose a significant role in its charm. For the Russian icon painter, color was the means by which he was able to achieve and express an expression of special tenderness; color helped him to surround the Christian legend with a poetic aura and made his art so beautiful that it was difficult not to succumb to its charm. The Russian icon painter’s attitude to color was much more direct and impulsive, although he had to reckon with the traditional color canon of Christ and the Mother of God. Iconography of the 15th century loves fiery Cinnabar, shining gold and golden ocher, and emerald green. Within the framework of the 3 main icons - Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow, their own coloristic traditions have developed and, despite the common style of 15th-century icons, color is precisely the most individual component of the style, facilitating the classification of icons by school. These coloristic traditions had a continuous connection with the coloristic traditions of Byzantium. But here they appeared folk tastes, which modified the stern Byzantine coloring in the direction of such jubilant cheerfulness that it acquired a completely new quality. A Russian icon can never be confused with a Byzantine one. An equally significant means of expression in the hands of the Russian icon painter was line. He mastered it perfectly; he knew how to make it angular, straight, smooth, calligraphic and monumental.

The distinctive properties of 15th-century icons, especially when compared with icons of later times, are their simplicity and clarity of composition. There is nothing superfluous in them, nothing secondary. Images of Gospel scenes and figures of saints predominate. The Russian icon painter extremely boldly and freely combines not the episodes that seem to him the main and most significant; he knows how to coordinate the height and width of his composition with its shallow depth.

The practice of Russian icon painting workshops undoubtedly goes back to the skills and techniques that were developed in Byzantium, but in this area Rus' made its own adjustments, dictated by local customs and materials. Boards for icons were most often made from linden, pine, less often spruce, and cypress appeared only in the second half of the 17th century. Usually the boards were given to the icon painter by the customer, or the icon painter himself entrusted their execution to a carpenter. The abundance of wood in Rus' made it possible to paint icons big size; A shield was made from individual boards, which was reinforced on the back side with horizontal padded beams or temporary spikes. On the front side of the board, a small depression (ark) with slightly raised edges (field) was carved out. In order to protect the boards from possible cracking, linen and hemp fabric was glued to them, and chalk or alabaster soil was applied over it. After thoroughly sanding the ground, they began a preliminary drawing made with charcoal; the contours of heads, figures and buildings were often scratched to make it easier to navigate when applying gold and paint. The next stage is gilding the backgrounds and other parts of the composition; only after this the artist begins to paint. They were made based on natural mineral pigments. Yolk served as a binding material in easel tempera painting. chicken egg. The artist applied paints in a certain sequence; he covered the background with even layers of paint of various tones, and lastly the exposed parts of the body. Thanks to this sequence, the artist was able to give himself a clear account of the distribution of the main spots of the composition. Only after this did he begin processing, observing the order: proceeding from the whole to the particulars, from minor elements to the main and main ones. Finally, after completion, the entire painting was covered on top with a film of hemp oil to enhance the depth and sonority of the color. This film was rubbed with the palm of the hand, after which the icon was placed facing the light for several months until the film dried. The icon painting technique was distinguished by great thoughtfulness and internal logic, ensuring high-quality writing, which today retains great freshness of colors. Over the centuries, craft techniques have been so carefully developed that they do not need any perfect adjustments.

Like all medieval artists, Russian masters used samples when working, it would not have been possible to remain faithful to the iconographic tradition since paper came into use in the 14th century, and parchment was expensive, then samples, as excavations in Novgorod showed, were made on the material on which wrote.

These composition samples were supposed to be contour drawings scratched on birch bark with a sharp tool. But no single point of view has been developed on how the Russian icon painter built his composition. The Russian icon painter used auxiliary means of geometric lines, but, undoubtedly, he also deviated from them, worked by intuition “by eye, here his art was manifested, if this were not so, then there would be twin icons. In icons of the 14th-15th centuries, the aspect ratios were most often expressed in the ratio of width and height as 3:4 or 4:5. Waist single figures often fit into a triangle standing tall in a square. But what exactly the proportional structure is is not clear. There is no doubt that the vertical and transverse axes, the central point from which the circle was drawn, were fixed in the composition, and for halos the radius of the halo was fixed, at standing figures 1/9 of the length of the figure, 1/8 of the length for those sitting.

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Until the 16th century, Russian masters adhered to ancient models in icon painting. These samples were for them, as for the Byzantines, images not of legendary, but of real events, a kind of portrait recordings of biblical episodes and the appearance of holy martyrs and figures canonized by the church, and therefore a sharp deviation from the generally accepted iconographic type was impossible. Hence the stability of iconographic types in Russian icon painting, which the church tirelessly cared about, as evidenced by the decrees of the councils of the 16th century. But, noting this stability, we cannot close our eyes to the process of living iconographic creativity that was going on all the time in Rus', but which proceeded in the 11th-15th centuries in a slow, veiled form, acquiring in the 16th-17th centuries, not without Western influences, fast pace

Main schools of icon painting

The main icon painting schools were concentrated in Novgorod, Pskov and Moscow. We know nothing about the ancient icon painting of southern Russian cities (Chernigov, Kyiv), although it undoubtedly existed. But so many first-class icons come from Novgorod, Pskov and Moscow, also marked by stylistic similarities, that we have every reason to consider them as three independent schools. Recently, the contours of other art centers- Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, Rostov and Suzdal. During political fragmentation In Rus', when it broke up into many appanage principalities, icons were made not only in large but also in small cities, which does not always mean that they had their own schools. This required stable artistic traditions, clearly established cadres of icon painters, and an abundance of orders, which was often not the case in small principalities. Therefore, the fact of the existence of separate icon-painting workshops in some cases may not be equivalent to the concept of a school. Given the endless spaces of Rus', such workshops were scattered throughout large villages.

Novgorod school

Having escaped the Tatar invasion, Novgorod experienced brilliant economic and cultural prosperity in the 14th-15th centuries. This free city with a strong craft layer conducted extensive overseas trade and energetically colonized the vast lands of the North, which invariably enriched the Novgorodians. Enterprising and decisive, practical and businesslike, they everywhere brought that spirit of personal initiative, which was especially clearly manifested in their republican system, with an elected mayor at their head, who limited the power of the prince, with their archbishop elected “by the whole city,” with a noisy veche, where The interests of the powerful boyars and artisans collided with the wealthy merchants, who increasingly acted as builders of churches and customers of icons.

For Novgorod icon painting of the 14th century, it was of great importance artistic heritage XIII century. In a century when cultural and trade ties with Byzantium were almost interrupted, when the import of Byzantine icons stopped, it became naturally easier to get out from under Byzantine influences. This paved the way for the widest assimilation of folk motifs and folk forms, as a result of which Novgorod painting became more primitive in the 13th century, but at the same time more full-blooded.

Pskov school

Pskov icon painting has its own distinct personality. The compositions of Pskov icons are most often asymmetrical and unstable, the drawing is imprecise, but always expressive in its own way, the color is thick and rather gloomy with a predominance of emerald green and dark green, almost black tones, dense cherry, red with a characteristic orange or pink tint, cloudy blue, grayish-green. The backgrounds are often yellow, although gold can also be found. Cutting garments using the finest gold lines is widely used, giving the colorful surface a shimmering character. There is something impetuous and dramatic in the coloring with its color contrasts. This impression is facilitated by a very special interpretation of dark brown carnation with sharp highlights and equally sharp highlights. The brushwork is broad and energetic, with an uneven distribution of colorful pigments. The artistic language of the Pskov icon is extremely expressive. In this way it is fundamentally different from the harmonious, balanced language of the Moscow icon. Perhaps, of all the ancient Russian icon painting schools, the Pskov school was the most democratic in spirit and the most direct and impulsive in its forms of expression.

Moscow school

The Moscow school of icon painting developed later than the Novgorod one, and the beginning of its heyday almost coincides with the heyday of the Pskov school. In Moscow painting of the first half of the 14th century, there undoubtedly existed, as in later times, various artistic movements- local and introduced from outside (from Byzantium and from the southern Slavs).

The appearance of Theophanes the Greek in Moscow was a great success for Moscow artists. In his person they came into contact with a master of exceptional talent, who brought the Constantinople tradition to Rus'. Feofan undoubtedly had his own large workshop, in which he collaborated with local craftsmen, and his art, strong and expressive, had an irresistible charm in the eyes of Muscovites. He had his own students and followers, and he contributed greatly to raising the quality level of Moscow icon painting.

But his influence turned out to be short-lived, since Andrei Rublev very soon moved away from him, becoming a champion of artistic ideals that were in many ways opposed to the ideals of Theophanes the Greek. Rublev's ideals were more contemplative, more enlightened. And he consciously rejected both the Byzantine over-refinement of form and those of the local archaic traditions that continued to hold firm and which were not easy to overcome. On this path, Rublev developed such a perfect artistic language, that throughout the 15th century his style became leading, and his personality was enveloped in an aura of such great glory that he was long perceived as the unrivaled ideal of an icon painter. Rublev single-handedly created those traditions of colorism and iconography in general, on which modern Russian iconography is based. Rublev chose pastel colors: soft gold, light blue, smoky green. It is worth noting the minimalism of the composition and the associated hyper-expressiveness of the images. This is the culmination of hesychasm, that is, the doctrine of restraint and the primacy of the divine nature in man.

It is assumed that in Russia, teaching drawing is closely connected with icon painting, with the emergence of icon painting schools in monasteries.

Greek and Byzantine masters taught to copy icons brought to Rus'; accordingly, the method of copying and drawing from samples prevailed in the training of apprentices.

The golden age of Russian icon painting began in the 80s of the 14th century, during a period of unprecedented spiritual renewal under the patronage of St. Sergius of Radonezh. The icons painted during that period radiate calm, as well as a sense of compassion and love for one’s neighbor. The genius of Russian icon painters continued to manifest itself in the 15th and 16th centuries, during the heyday of the Moscow, Novgorod, Tver and Pskov schools of icon painting.

In Russian icon painting of the 15th century, which was the era of its greatest flourishing, the figures of saints are always depicted as ethereal, they are dressed in wide, indefinitely cut clothes that hide the plasticity of the body, they have rounded faces, in which there is nothing portrait (unless these are portrait images) and whose individual traits are extremely neutralized. If figures are combined with landscape, then the latter is reduced to the simplest forms, subjected to such great stylization that they completely lose their organic character. If architectural scenes are introduced, they are no less laconic and conventional. In the Russian icon there is a pathos of the distance separating heaven from earth, there is an awareness of the speculative nature of the events and things depicted.

For the Russian icon painter, color was the means that allowed him to convey the subtlest emotional shades. With the help of color, he knew how to achieve both an expression of strength and an expression of special tenderness; color helped him surround the Christian legend with a poetic aura; color made his art so beautiful that it was difficult not to succumb to its charm. For the Russian icon painter, paint was a precious material, no less precious than smalt. The icon painter of the 15th century loves fiery cinnabar, and shining gold, and golden ocher, and emerald green, and pure white colors like snowdrops, and dazzling lapis lazuli, and delicate shades of pink, violet, lilac and silver-green. Within the framework of the three main icon-painting schools - Novgorod, Pskov and Moscow - their own color traditions have developed, and with all the common style of 15th-century icons, color is precisely the most individual component of the style, facilitating the classification of icons by school.

Pskov school.

In the 16th century Pskov became part of the Moscow state. Since that time, Moscow and local traditions have been combined in Pskov painting.

The iconography of Pskov is close to the Novgorod school, this is explained by the fact that Novgorod painting acquired all-Russian influence, and Pskov for a long time was the “younger brother” of Novgorod.

Novgorod masters knew how to masterfully manage the entire arsenal of their artistic means, but they were characterized by some restraint, even severity.

Pskov icons do not have such a solid design and virtuosity; they seem to be devoid of external shine. On Pskov icons the center of the composition may be shifted, the composition itself does not fit so harmoniously into the rosettes, but this does not detract from their merits. The Pskov icon is always poetic.

Pskov icons are distinguished by a special way of processing the board for the icon; special dramatic figurative structure of icons; the use of active color spots, especially red and green, less often blue; use of paints only from local materials; “involvement” of characters in the events depicted on the icon; interest in human psychology, the human face and human experiences - this is what the Pskov masters conveyed with exceptional insight; freedom of writing.

Characteristic Features Novgorod icons is the simplicity and expressiveness of the compositions and the extraordinary symmetry of the arrangement of images. Everything on the Novgorod icon is symmetrical: the arrangement of saints, relief elements, plants, etc. A striking feature of the icons of the Novgorod school is the symbolic image of the water element in the form of a blue flower. There are white patterns on the flower.

The depiction of architectural images on icons also deserves attention. Their silhouettes are all expressive, and the colors are warm and pleasant. Windows, doors, curtains on the windows are usually made in dark colors. The vast majority of the walls of architectural images have ornamentation.

Another characteristic feature of the Novgorod icon is the special image of trees. The tree crowns were rounded. They resemble a fan. The foliage in the crowns was depicted at a pointed angle, and the trunks were extremely thin and graceful.

A striking feature of the Novgorod icon is the symbolism in the depiction of hands. Their position symbolized one or another emotional state and even its shade.

The figures of the characters were somewhat elongated, which created the impression of harmony, elegance, and solemnity.

Back in the second half of the 16th century in Yaroslavl began to take shape school of icon painting. Even then, local icon painters worked mainly on orders from the townspeople, focusing on their tastes. They complicated traditional images on icons, created new compositions of canonical subjects, and enriched them with everyday details.

Yaroslavl icon painters early ceased to be content with traditional systems that had been established for many centuries, even when painting strictly canonized images. They boldly introduced new details into these images, rearranged the structure of the composition in their own way, and tried to make it entertaining and suitable for long viewing. They organized the scheme for constructing the “image in life” in their own way, making it original and easily distinguishable from similar works by other masters art schools. First, local icon painters turned the rows of marks in hagiographic icons into something similar to a patterned multicolor frame, then they separated the center of such icons from the rows of marks with a wide ornamental strip.

Moscow school of icon painting developed later than the Novgorod school and the beginning of its heyday almost coincides with the heyday of the Pskov school

With the appearance of Andrei Rublev on the historical stage, a new and most significant chapter in the history of Moscow Iconography begins. The latter had already become established as a special school before Andrei Rublev, but acquired its clear individual features only in the first quarter of the 15th century. UNTIL this time, Moscow schools were the concept of a stylistic community. They tell us about the existence in Moscow of various artistic movements, often completely incomprehensible and chaotic. Rublev managed to unite into a single whole local traditions and everything drawn from the traditions of Byzantine masters. He owed much to Theophanes the Greek. However, in terms of his lyrical talent, he was the antipode of Theophanes. Rublev's ideals were different - more contemplative and enlightened. And he deliberately rejected both the Byzantine over-refinement of form and those of the local traditions that continued to hold firm. At this stage, Rublev developed such a perfect artistic language that throughout the 15th century his style became the leading one.

Needed "codes" of rules, laws their writing. Such collections of rules for constructing images of individual saints, faces, hands, positions of figures, basic compositions of subjects in an icon, fresco or book miniature were compiled. Collections included " draw" famous icons, methodological instructions for working on an icon and technological manuals for finishing an icon with gold and working on a fresco. The rules for depicting saints were so detailed that the shape of the beard and hair color were indicated (XV century).

Collections of rules and “drawings” made in different schools of icon painting differed from each other, which was the cause of violent clashes and disputes.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century. The first attempts were made to create a unified set of rules.

Teaching methods in icon painting schools:

studying the technology of making paints, oils and varnishes;

mastering the “graphia” technology - contour drawing for frescoes, gesso;

training in technical techniques for writing heads, arms, legs, folds of clothing, vegetation, buildings;

copying compositions from originals, first through tracing paper and later “by eye”.

First copybooks and albums for students made by an artist-monk Nicodemus in the second half of the 17th century, within the walls Antoniev-Siysky Monastery.

In a treatise on art Joseph Vladimirov(second half of the 17th century) we find information that icon painters are beginning to show interest in verisimilitude in the image, which is possible with realistic approach to drawing, which is based on observation and study of nature.

Among the Russian icon painters who showed special interest in art education and methods of teaching drawing, it should be noted the icon painter Simona Ushakova. An attempt to take Russian painting out of the framework of canons and conventions and bring it closer to reality. Recommended study nature and the human body; the need for theory.

Thus , until the 17th century, canonized fine art was taught in Russia and the leading method of teaching drawing was copying from samples (icon painting schools retained not only the canons and rules of drawing, but also the methodology for teaching icon writing right up to our time).

In the 16th century, a new principle of art was born: open connections were established between art and concrete reality. Artists of this time were characterized by intense interest in real world. On the one hand, there is a close convergence of common Christian concepts and historical events, on the other hand, the elements Everyday life penetrates the icon. The style of art becomes all-Russian, the fundamental difference between schools disappears. This is the result of the unification of the Moscow state, which has achieved unprecedented power. The formation of style takes place in the capital, Moscow. And in the first half of the century, Metropolitan Macarius, a subtle stream of art, summoned masters from all cities of Rus' to Moscow. Many local icons and shrines also come to the capital. Especially many painters appeared in Moscow after the terrible fire of 1547, which destroyed many valuable works art - frescoes, icons.

Moscow masters turn to ancient artistic traditions in their work. They are especially attracted by the painting of the 14th century and the architecture of the time of Andrei Rublev. But the legacy ancient art creatively rethought. A new worldview, the fusion of many artistic traditions gives birth to an independent art style. Its distinctive feature is concreteness, definiteness of forms, their public nature. In the works of the 16th century, an image of the real world appears.

The end of the 15th century - the beginning of the 16th centuries.
From Otroch Monastery

Already at the very beginning of the century this new trend art is manifested in provincial folk craftsmen. In the royal gates from the village of Markova, Yaroslavl region, in the scenes with the evangelists, the master with special love reproduces the wooden carvings of the architecture. Even the slides, against which John and Prokhor are sitting, resemble the carved wooden skates that decorated the huts. The peasant types of evangelists reflected the same artist’s interest in his surroundings. By the middle of the century, new subjects appeared in icon painting, ancient subjects seemed to be interpreted in a completely worldly manner. The depiction of real poses and gestures of people, specific details of everyday life is observed in many works of this time. Narrative art is born with its variety of scenes and psychological situations, with its attention to detail.

In the mid-century icon “Nativity of the Virgin Mary” from the city of Dmitrov, the story is striking in its vividness. This plot was very popular in the 16th century.

In the middle of the icon there is a birth scene. The virgins with gifts approach Anna, Mary's mother. The maids prepared to bathe the baby. Joachim, Mary's father, looks with interest from the window at this long-awaited joy in his house. Everything is full of movement, living feeling.

Dark, dense colors give greater materiality to the figures. The architectural forms are fantastic, but there is a sense of weight in them, they closely enclose the space, so that the image of a cozy interior is created. The artist tells in detail the history, birth and life of the Mother of God. The marks are “read” from left to right through the middle. Intimate scenes of little Mary's caressing and her first steps are presented (seventh and eighth marks). The scene where Mary is given as a wife to Elder Joseph is psychologically complex. He is confused, throwing up his hands in bewilderment (eleventh mark). The icon shows everyday expressiveness of faces and poses. The concreteness of the depiction of feelings creates in the icon, despite the conventional solution of space, the fantastic nature of architectural forms, an artistically convincing image of reality. But this reality is also wonderfully poeticized. Nature is endowed with human feelings in the icon. The tree bows low to Mary, who bids farewell to the world before her death.

In the second half of the 16th century, a unique monumental style was created that embodied the philosophical ideas of its time. But the philosophical breadth of the concept of the masters of the monumental style is combined with the ability to reveal individual feelings and thoughts. Special attention artists paid attention to the image of the face, since only through it is it possible to convey inner world person.

Mid-16th century
From the Assumption Cathedral in Dmitrov

The very composition of the icon of the second half of the century from Dmitrov - only the head of the Forerunner is depicted - speaks of the search for special expressiveness of the face. John's eyebrows met in a tragic fracture. The gaze of his mournful eyes is fixed with a prayer. The forehead, nose, and chin seem to be carved out of stone with strong and precise blows of a chisel. The fiery ocher faces sound alarmingly against the gloomy green background, The feeling of the tragedy of one’s fate has reached here enormous power generalizations. The cruel and harsh reality of the time of Ivan the Terrible formed the basis for the artist’s understanding of the fate of the Forerunner - the accuser and the prophet.

1560s. Moscow school
From the Trinity Monastery near the city of Alexandrov

The face of John on the icon from the Makhrishchi Monastery shows us insoluble grief. The master creates it using graphic techniques, sharpening the expressiveness of every facial feature. In this icon, the Forerunner is depicted with wings, symbolically denoting his Christian self-denial. This ascetic idea is also developed by other allegorical images on the icon. The Forerunner holds a bowl with his head - a symbol of sacrificial death.

At his feet is depicted a barren tree, which must have been cut with an ax - a symbol of a life that sacrifices nothing for the sake of people and therefore has no meaning. This idea is confirmed by the inscription on the scroll with the text from the Gospel that “the barren tree is visited.” Such complex symbolic constructions were close to people of the 16th century.

The coloring of the icon is bleak, cold and dull: the artist uses various shades brown and green. Suddenly, cinnabar flashes alarmingly on the wings and on the shaft of the axe. The Makhrishchi Monastery, where the icon comes from, is located not far from Alexandrova Sloboda, the former center of the oprichnina. There are documents suggesting that the icon was painted by order of the Tsar himself.

Second half of the 16th century.
From Dmitrov

The master of the icon “Our Lady of the Sign” from Dmitrov builds the image on a reinterpretation of the ancient artistic forms. The face of the Mother of God is stern and filled inner strength. The strict symmetry of the figure contrasts with the asymmetry of the face and eyes, which gives great strength to the face of the Mother of God. This compositional effect was popular in the 14th century. Her figure actively appears in powerful relief against the dark background of the icon. The strongly revealed plasticity of the image also finds analogies in the painting of the 14th century.

If the tragedy of a mother's feat is raised here to the heights of philosophical generalization, then in the image of the “Vladimir Mother of God” of the same time from the Joseph-Volotsky Monastery, a living feeling of love and defenselessness before fate is revealed.

It is believed that the hand of the icon painter is moved by God. We will tell you about seven masters whose work has elevated Russian icon painting to the category of the greatest achievements of both national and world culture.

Theophanes the Greek (about 1340 - about 1410)

In miniature: Don Icon Mother of God brushes by Theophanes the Greek. One of the greatest icon painters of his time, Theophanes the Greek was born in Byzantium in 1340 and during for long years honed his unique expressive style, painting the temples of Constantinople, Chalcedon, Genoese Galata and Kafa. However, none of the frescoes from that period have survived to this day, and worldwide fame masters compiled paintings made in Rus'.

He arrived in Novgorod (in 1370) as an already accomplished icon painter. Theophan's first work in Novgorod was the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street - the only surviving monumental work of Theophan the Greek. Time has spared the frescoes with the famous chest-to-chest image of the Savior Pantocrator with the Gospel, with the figures of Adam, Abel, Noah, Seth and Melchizedek, as well as images of the prophets Elijah and John.

Twelve years later, Feofan the Greek moved to Moscow, where he supervised the work of masters in painting the temples of the Moscow Kremlin. Not everyone knows: the original frescoes of Theophanes the Greek and his students have not survived, but individual fragments of their composition were reproduced again and again on the walls of the Kremlin cathedrals. The fact that the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, together with Theophan the Greek, was also painted by Elder Prokhor of Gorodets and Andrei Rublev deserves special mention.

In addition to icon painting, Theophanes the Greek created miniatures for books and designed the Gospels - for example, the great Byzantine master wrote the ornamental decorations of the famous Gospel of the Moscow boyar Fyodor Koshka.

Interesting fact: Theophanes the Greek is credited with the authorship of icons from the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. This is the first iconostasis in Russia with figures of saints depicted in full height. Also, the Don Icon of the Mother of God and the Icon of the Transfiguration of Jesus Christ on the Mountain, stored in the Tretyakov Gallery, belong to the brush of the Greek e Favor.

Andrei Rublev (about 1360 - 1428)

In miniature: Icon “Trinity” by Andrei Rublev.Andrei Rublev can be called the most famous and - if such a definition is possible in a conversation about a canonized monk-artist - popular Russian icon painter, whose work for hundreds of years has been a symbol of the true greatness of Russian art and absolute devotion to his chosen path in life.

To this day, neither Rublev’s birthplace nor even the name given to him at birth is known - he was named Andrei already when he was tonsured a monk - however, the paucity of factual information about the master in in a certain sense even adds expressiveness and brightness to his image.

The earliest of famous works Rublev is considered to have jointly painted the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin in 1405 with Theophanes the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets. After completing this work, Rublev painted the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod, and later, together with Daniil Cherny, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.

Rublev's unsurpassed masterpiece is traditionally considered the icon of the Holy Trinity, painted in the first quarter of the 15th century - one of the most multifaceted icons ever created by Russian icon painters, which is based on the plot of the appearance of God to the righteous Abraham in the form of three young angels.

Interesting fact: narrating the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Trinity Chronicle mentions the name of the “monk Rublev” as the last in the series, Theophanes the Greek-Prokhor from Gorodets-Rublev, which, according to the chronicle tradition, means that he was the youngest in the artel. At the same time, the very fact of working together with Feofan the Greek makes it clear that by that time Rublev was already an accomplished master.

Daniil Black (about 1350 - 1428)

In miniature: Fresco “Abraham’s Bosom” by Daniil Cherny.Many books and articles about Russian icon painting also often remember the monk Daniel only in the context of his collaboration with the author of the great “Trinity”, however, in fact, his services to Russian culture are by no means exhausted by this.

Daniil Cherny was not only Rublev’s senior comrade and mentor (according to the famous “Spiritual Letter” of Joseph Volotsky), but also an absolutely self-sufficient and experienced artist, distinguished from many of his contemporaries not only by his truly unique gift as a painter, but also by his ability to work with composition, color and the nature of the drawing.

Among the original works of Daniil Cherny there are both frescoes and icons, the most famous of which are “Abraham’s Bosom” and “John the Baptist” (Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir), as well as “Our Lady” and “Apostle Paul” (Trinity-Sergius Lavra)

Interesting fact: collaborations Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev presented historians with the difficult problem of dividing their works, an interesting solution to which was proposed by the art critic Igor Grabar. Icons and frescoes by Daniil Cherny must be recognized as those whose features show signs of the previous school of writing of the 14th century. The impeccable logic of this decision is as follows: in comparison with Rublev, Daniil Cherny can be considered an artist of the older generation, therefore, all the signs of “old” icon painting are the work of his hands.

Dionysius (about 1440 - 1502)

On the thumbnail: Icon “Descent into Hell” by Dionysius. The name of Dionysius personifies, perhaps, the best and greatest achievements of Moscow icon painting of the 15th-16th centuries. Historians and art historians consider him a kind of successor to the traditions of Andrei Rublev, who takes his place of honor among the greatest Russian icon painters.

The earliest known work of Dionysius is the miraculously preserved painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God in the Pafnutievo-Borovsky Monastery near Kaluga (15th century). More than a hundred years later, in 1586, the old cathedral was dismantled to build a new one. Stone blocks with frescoes of Dionysius and Mitrofan were used in its foundation, where they were successfully discovered many years later. Today these frescoes are kept in the Moscow Museum ancient Russian culture and art and the Borovsk branch of the Kaluga Museum of Local Lore.

In 1479, Dionysius painted an iconostasis for the wooden Church of the Assumption in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, and 3 years later - the image of the Mother of God Hodegetria on a charred Greek icon from the Ascension Monastery destroyed in 1929 in the Moscow Kremlin.

The work of Dionysius in northern Russia deserves special mention: around 1481 he painted icons for the Spaso-Kamenny and Pavlovo-Obnorsky monasteries near Vologda, and in 1502, together with his sons Vladimir and Theodosius, he painted frescoes for the Ferapontov Monastery on Beloozero.

Interesting fact: Dionysius’ writing style can be judged by the superbly preserved frescoes of that same Ferapontov monastery on Beloozero. These frescoes have never been rewritten or undergone major restoration, thus remaining as close as possible to their original appearance and color scheme .

Gury Nikitin (1620 - 1691)

On the thumbnail: Icon “Martyrs Cyric and Julitta” by Gury Nikitin) Frescoes Kostroma icon painter Guriy Nikitin is not only an example of the splendor and symbolism of Russian icon painting, but a truly unique combination of decorativeism and monumentality within one work for his time. The fact is that it was precisely during the period of Nikitin’s creative maturity - and this is approximately the 60s of the 17th century - that the rise of Russian monumental and decorative art occurred - and these trends do not bypass the young master.

In 1666, a difficult year for the Russian church, Guriy Nikitin took part in the renewed work on painting the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - Nikitin’s brushes included images of martyred soldiers on the pillars, as well as individual parts of the monumental composition “ Last Judgment" After 2 years, Nikitin painted 4 icons for the Moscow Church of St. Gregory of Neocessary.

However, perhaps the main “professional achievement” of Gury Nikitin was the mural painting in the Yaroslavl Church of Elijah the Prophet and the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery. During these years, he already led a group of icon painters, performing the most the hard part work - he single-handedly drew the outlines of all the frescoes, which were then completed by the students.

Interesting fact: if you believe the Watch Book of 1664, it turns out that Nikitin is not the surname, but the patronymic of the famous icon painter. Full name masters - Gury Nikitin (Ni Kitovich) Kineshemtsev.

Simon Ushakov (1626 - 1686)

In miniature: Icon of the Virgin Mary “Tenderness” by Simon Ushakov. Favorite of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the favorite and only icon painter of the top officials of the state, an unsurpassed master of drawing and color, Simon Ushakov, in a certain sense, marked with his work the beginning of the process of “secularization” of church art. Fulfilling orders from the Tsar and Patriarch, the Tsar’s children, boyars and other important persons, Ushakov painted more than 50 icons, marking the beginning of a new, “Ushakov” period of Russian icon painting.

Many researchers agree that Ushakov had no equal in painting faces - and it is by the way he wrote them that it is easiest to track what changes - logically coinciding with church reform Patriarch Nikon - occurred with Russian icon painting. In Ushakov, the face of the Savior, traditional for Russian icon painting, acquired “new, hitherto unknown features. The Novgorod Savior was a formidable God, the new Savior is infinitely more affectionate: he is a God-man. This humanization of the Divine, his approach to us, brought warmth to the stern appearance of the ancient Christ, but at the same time deprived him of his monumentality.”

Another important historical feature Ushakov's creativity is reflected in the fact that, unlike the icon painters of the past, Ushakov signs his icons. At first glance, an insignificant detail essentially signifies a serious change in the public consciousness of that time - if previously it was believed that the Lord himself leads the hand of the icon painter - and at least for this reason the master does not have the moral right to sign his work - now the situation is changing to the completely opposite and even religious art takes on secular features s. Like Simon Ushakov, Zubov worked at the royal court and was one of the five “compensated icon painters.” Having worked in the capital for more than 40 years, Fyodor Zubov wrote great amount icons, among which were images of the Savior Not Made by Hands, John the Baptist, Andrew the First-Called, the Prophet Elijah, St. Nicholas and many other saints.

Interesting fact: a “paid icon painter” of the royal court, that is, a master who receives a monthly salary and through this - a certain confidence in tomorrow, Fyodor Zubov began to follow the principle “if there was no happiness, but misfortune would help.” The fact is that in the early 1660s, Zubov’s family was left practically without a livelihood, and the icon painter was forced to write a petition to the tsar.

Dmitry Merkulov