By the 15th century, the prerequisites had developed in Europe for sailors to explore maritime spaces. Vessels appeared, designed specifically for the movement of European sailors. Technology is developing rapidly: by the 15th century, the compass and sea charts were improved. This made it possible to discover and explore new lands.
In 1492-1494 Christopher Columbus Bahamas, Greater and Lesser Antilles. By 1494 he reached America. Around the same time - in 1499-1501. – Amerigo Vespucci sailed to the shores of Brazil. Another famous one - Vasco da Gama - opens at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. continuous sea route from Western Europe to India. This contributed to the development of trade, which in the 15-16th centuries. played a primary role in the life of every state. X. Ponce de Leon, F. Cordova, X. Grijalva discovered the Gulf of La Plata, the Florida and Yucatan peninsulas.
The most important event
The most important event at the beginning of the 16th century it became Ferdinand Magellan and his team. Thus, it was possible to confirm the opinion that it has a spherical shape. Later, the strait through which his route passed was named in honor of Magellan. In the 16th century, South and North America were almost completely discovered and explored by the Spanish. Later, at the end of the same century, Francis Drake committed.
Russian sailors did not lag behind European ones. In the 16th-17th centuries. The development of Siberia is rapidly progressing and Far East. The names of the discoverers I. Moskvitin and E. Khabarov are known. The basins of the Lena and Yenisei rivers are open. The expedition of F. Popov and S. Dezhnev sailed from the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Thus, it was possible to prove that Asia and America are not connected anywhere.
During the Great Geographical Discoveries, many new lands appeared. However, there were still “white” spots for a long time. For example, Australian lands were studied much later. Made in the 15th-17th centuries geographical discoveries allowed the development of other sciences, such as botany. Europeans had the opportunity to get acquainted with new crops - tomatoes, potatoes, which later began to be consumed everywhere. We can say that the Great Geographical Discoveries marked the beginning of capitalist relations, since thanks to them trade reached a global level.
Cartography is the business of creating geographic maps. This is one of the branches of cartography, which most likely appeared even before the invention of writing. The first maps were depicted on stones, tree bark and even sand. They are preserved in the form of rock paintings. For example, a good example can be seen in the Italian Camonica Valley; it dates back to the Bronze Age.
Geographic maps are the earth's surface, it contains a coordinate grid with conventional signs, which are the same for all countries. Of course, the image is greatly reduced. All cards are divided into various types: by scale, by territorial coverage, purpose and by . The first category has three types: they can be large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale.
For the former, the ratio of the drawing to the original can be from 1:10,000 to 1:200,000. They are used most often, because they are more complete. Medium-scale maps are most often used in sets, for example, in the form. Their scale is from 1:200,000 to 1:1,000,000 inclusive. The information on them is no longer as complete, which is why they are used less often. Well last option geographic maps have a scale of more than 1:1,000,000. Only the main objects are shown on them. And even major cities may not appear on them and may look like a tiny dot. Most often, small-scale maps are used to indicate distribution different languages, cultures, religions and more. One of the most bright examples are cards familiar to almost all people.
By territorial scale geographical maps are divided into maps of the world, countries and regions. They may have many more appointments. For example, geographical maps can be educational, navigational, tourist, scientific reference and others.
Geographic maps are one of the the most convenient ways save the information people need. It is difficult to overestimate their role in, and for each person in particular. Cartography is one of the oldest sciences that will always be relevant.
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The 20th century brought humanity many useful discoveries, including the concept of “quantum” and the atomic model, which allowed physics, energy, and electronics to make great strides forward. And although there are hundreds of scientists whose work can be mentioned, the society identifies the 5 most important results of their work.
3 important discoveries from physics and chemistry
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the general one was discovered, which is now widely known in society and is studied in educational institutions. Now the theory of relativity seems to be a natural truth that should not raise doubts, but at the time of its development it was completely incomprehensible even to many scientists discovery. The result of Einstein’s painstaking work changed views on many other issues and phenomena. It was the theory of relativity that made it possible to predict many effects that previously seemed contrary to common sense, including the effect of time dilation. Finally, thanks to it, it was possible to determine the orbit of some planets, including Mercury.
In the 20s In the 20th century, Rutherford suggested that in addition to protons and electrons, there also exists. Previously, scientists believed that there were only positively charged particles in the nucleus of an atom, but he refuted this point of view. However, it was not immediately recognized: it took several years and many experiments carried out by Bothe, Becker, Joliot-Curie and Chadwick to determine that in the nucleus of an atom there really are uncharged particles whose mass is slightly greater than the mass of a proton. This discovery led to the development of nuclear energy and rapid progress in science, but, alas, it also contributed to the creation of atomic bombs.
In the middle of the twentieth century, a discovery that was not very well known among non-specialists, but still remarkable, was made. It was accomplished by the chemist Waldemar Ziegler. These are organometallic catalysts, which have made it possible to significantly simplify and reduce the cost of most synthesis options. They are still used in many chemical plants and are an integral part of production.
2 discoveries in the field of biology and genetics
In the 70s In the 20th century, an amazing discovery was made: doctors were able to remove an egg from a woman’s body without harming either one, then create ideal conditions for the egg in a test tube, fertilize it and return it back. Thousands happy women Those who managed to conceive a baby in this way can thank Bob Edwards and Patrick Stepnow for this discovery.
Finally, at the very end of the century, another amazing discovery was made: scientists realized that it was possible to “clean out” an egg and place the nucleus of an adult cell in it, and then return it to the uterus. This is how the first sheep clone was created - Dolly the sheep. The cloned sheep not only survived, but also managed to live 6 years after its birth.
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In order to be able to clearly determine the location points in space, geographical coordinates. Thanks to this system, you can always find any point on the globe, on a map or on the ground.
You will need
- - map or globe;
- - electronic card;
- - satellite navigator.
Instructions
To find latitude, use horizontal lines drawn - parallels. Determine which parallel your point is on and find its value in degrees. Around each horizontal parallel there are degrees (left and right). If the point is located directly on it, feel free to conclude that its latitude is equal to this value.
If the selected place lies between two parallels indicated on the map, determine the latitude of the nearest parallel and add to it the length of the arc in degrees to points. Calculate the length of the arc using a protractor or approximately by eye. For example, if a point is midway between parallels 30º and 35º, then its latitude will be 32.5º. Label N if the point is located above the equator (latitude) and label S if it is below the equator (latitude).
Meridians—vertical lines on a map—will help you determine longitude. Find the one closest to your point on the map and look at it coordinates, indicated above and below (in degrees). Measure with a protractor or estimate by eye the length of the arc between this meridian and the selected location. Add the result to the found value and get the longitude of the desired points.
A computer with Internet access or an electronic card will also help determine coordinates places. To do this, open a map, for example, http://maps.rambler.ru/, then enter the name of the place in the top window or indicate it on the map using the cursor (it is located in the center of the screen). Look, in the lower left corner are the exact coordinates points.
Travel has always attracted people, but before it was not only interesting, but also extremely difficult. The territories were unexplored, and when setting off, everyone became an explorer. Which travelers are the most famous and what exactly did each of them discover?
James Cook
The famous Englishman was one of the best cartographers of the eighteenth century. He was born in the north of England and by the age of thirteen began to work with his father. But the boy turned out to be incapable of trading, so he decided to take up sailing. In those days, all famous travelers of the world went to distant countries on ships. James became interested in maritime affairs and advanced so quickly career ladder that he was offered to become captain. He refused and went to the Royal Navy. Already in 1757, the talented Cook began to control the ship himself. His first achievement was the design of the channel of the St. Lawrence River. He discovered his talent as a navigator and cartographer. In the 1760s he explored Newfoundland, which attracted the attention of the Royal Society and the Admiralty. He was entrusted with a journey across the Pacific Ocean, where he reached the shores of New Zealand. In 1770, he accomplished something that other famous travelers had not achieved before - he discovered a new continent. Cook returned to England in 1771 as the famous pioneer of Australia. His last journey was an expedition in search of a passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Today, even schoolchildren know the sad fate of Cook, who was killed by cannibal natives.
Christopher Columbus
Famous travelers and their discoveries have always had a significant influence on the course of history, but few turned out to be as famous as this man. Columbus became a national hero of Spain, decisively expanding the map of the country. Christopher was born in 1451. The boy quickly achieved success because he was diligent and studied well. Already at the age of 14 he went to sea. In 1479, he met his love and began life in Portugal, but after the tragic death of his wife, he and his son went to Spain. Having received the support of the Spanish king, he set out on an expedition whose goal was to find a route to Asia. Three ships sailed from the coast of Spain to the west. In October 1492 they reached the Bahamas. This is how America was discovered. Christopher mistakenly decided to call the local residents Indians, believing that he had reached India. His report changed history: the two new continents and many islands discovered by Columbus became the main focus of colonial voyages over the next few centuries.
Vasco da Gama
The most famous traveler of Portugal was born in the city of Sines on September 29, 1460. WITH youth he worked in the navy and became famous as a confident and fearless captain. In 1495, King Manuel came to power in Portugal, who dreamed of developing trade with India. For this, a sea route was needed, in search of which Vasco da Gama had to go. There were more famous sailors and travelers in the country, but for some reason the king chose him. In 1497, four ships sailed south, rounded and sailed to Mozambique. They had to stop there for a month - half the team by that time was suffering from scurvy. After the break, Vasco da Gama reached Calcutta. In India, he established trade relations for three months, and a year later returned to Portugal, where he became a national hero. The discovery of a sea route that made it possible to get to Calcutta along the east coast of Africa was his main achievement.
Nikolai Miklouho-Maclay
Famous Russian travelers also made many important discoveries. For example, the same Nikolai Mikhlukho-Maclay, born in 1864 in the Novgorod province. He was unable to graduate from St. Petersburg University, as he was expelled for participating in student demonstrations. To continue his education, Nikolai went to Germany, where he met Haeckel, a natural scientist who invited Miklouho-Maclay to his scientific expedition. This is how the world of wanderings opened up for him. His whole life was devoted to travel and scientific work. Nikolai lived in Sicily, Australia, studied New Guinea, implementing the project of the Russian Geographical Society, visited Indonesia, the Philippines, the Malacca Peninsula and Oceania. In 1886, the natural scientist returned to Russia and proposed to the emperor to found a Russian colony overseas. But the project with New Guinea did not receive royal support, and Miklouho-Maclay became seriously ill and soon died without completing his work on the travel book.
Ferdinand Magellan
Many famous navigators and travelers lived during the era of the Great Magellan is no exception. In 1480 he was born in Portugal, in the city of Sabrosa. Having gone to serve at court (at that time he was only 12 years old), he learned about the confrontation between his native country and Spain, about travel to the East Indies and trade routes. This is how he first became interested in the sea. In 1505, Fernand got on a ship. For seven years after that, he roamed the seas and took part in expeditions to India and Africa. In 1513, Magellan traveled to Morocco, where he was wounded in battle. But this did not curb his thirst for travel - he planned an expedition for spices. The king rejected his request, and Magellan went to Spain, where he received all the necessary support. That's how it started trip around the world. Fernand thought that from the west the route to India might be shorter. He crossed Atlantic Ocean, reached South America and opened a strait that would later be named after him. became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. He used it to reach the Philippines and almost reached his goal - the Moluccas, but died in a battle with local tribes, wounded by a poisonous arrow. However, his journey revealed a new ocean to Europe and the understanding that the planet was much larger than scientists had previously thought.
Roald Amundsen
The Norwegian was born at the very end of an era in which many famous travelers became famous. Amundsen became the last of the navigators trying to find open lands. Since childhood, he was distinguished by perseverance and self-confidence, which allowed him to conquer the South Geographic Pole. The beginning of the journey is connected with 1893, when the boy dropped out of university and got a job as a sailor. In 1896 he became a navigator, and the following year he set off on his first expedition to Antarctica. The ship was lost in the ice, the crew suffered from scurvy, but Amundsen did not give up. He took command, cured the people, remembering his medical training, and led the ship back to Europe. Having become a captain, in 1903 he set out to search for the Northwest Passage off Canada. Famous travelers before him had never done anything like this - in two years the team covered the path from the east of the American continent to its west. Amundsen became famous throughout the world. The next expedition was a two-month trip to the Southern Plus, and the last enterprise was the search for Nobile, during which he went missing.
David Livingston
Many famous travelers are associated with sailing. He became a land explorer, namely the African continent. The famous Scot was born in March 1813. At age 20, he decided to become a missionary, met Robert Moffett and wanted to go to African villages. In 1841 he came to Kuruman, where he taught local residents how to agriculture, served as a doctor and taught literacy. There he learned the Bechuana language, which helped him in his travels around Africa. Livingston studied in detail the life and customs of the local residents, wrote several books about them and went on an expedition in search of the sources of the Nile, in which he fell ill and died of a fever.
Amerigo Vespucci
The world's most famous travelers most often came from Spain or Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci was born in Italy and became one of the famous Florentines. He received good education and studied to be a financier. From 1490 he worked in Seville, in the Medici trade mission. His life was connected with sea voyages For example, he sponsored Columbus's second expedition. Christopher inspired him with the idea of trying himself as a traveler, and already in 1499 Vespucci went to Suriname. The purpose of swimming was to study coastline. There he opened a settlement called Venezuela - little Venice. In 1500 he returned home, bringing 200 slaves. In 1501 and 1503 Amerigo repeated his travels, acting not only as a navigator, but also as a cartographer. He discovered the bay of Rio de Janeiro, the name of which he gave himself. From 1505 he served the King of Castile and did not take part in campaigns, only equipping other people’s expeditions.
Francis Drake
Many famous travelers and their discoveries benefited humanity. But among them there are also those who left behind a bad memory, since their names were associated with rather cruel events. The English Protestant, who sailed on a ship from the age of twelve, was no exception. He captured locals in the Caribbean, sold them into slavery to the Spaniards, attacked ships and fought with Catholics. Perhaps no one could match Drake in the number of captured foreign ships. His campaigns were sponsored by the Queen of England. In 1577, he went to South America to defeat the Spanish settlements. During the journey, he found Tierra del Fuego and a strait, which was later named after him. Having sailed around Argentina, Drake plundered the port of Valparaiso and two Spanish ships. Having reached California, he met the natives who presented the British with gifts of tobacco and bird feathers. Drake crossed the Indian Ocean and returned to Plymouth, becoming the first British person to circumnavigate the world. He was admitted to the House of Commons and awarded the title of Sir. In 1595 he died on his last trip to the Caribbean.
Afanasy Nikitin
Few famous Russian travelers have achieved the same heights as this native of Tver. Afanasy Nikitin became the first European to visit India. He traveled to the Portuguese colonialists and wrote “Walking across the Three Seas” - a most valuable literary and historical monument. The success of the expedition was ensured by the career of a merchant: Afanasy knew several languages and knew how to negotiate with people. On his journey, he visited Baku, lived in Persia for about two years and reached India by ship. After visiting several cities in an exotic country, he went to Parvat, where he stayed for a year and a half. After the province of Raichur, he headed to Russia, laying a route through the Arabian and Somali peninsulas. However, Afanasy Nikitin never made it home, because he fell ill and died near Smolensk, but his notes were preserved and provided the merchant with world fame.
They are always attracted by the horizon line, an endless strip stretching into the distance. Their faithful friends are ribbons of roads leading to the unknown, mysterious and mysterious. They were the first to push the boundaries, opening new lands and the amazing beauty of metrics to humanity. These people are the most famous travelers.
Travelers who made the most important discoveries
Christopher Columbus. He was a red-haired guy with a strong build and slightly above average height. Since childhood, he was smart, practical, and very proud. He had a dream - to go on a journey and find a treasure of gold coins. And he made his dreams come true. He found a treasure - a huge continent - America.Three quarters of Columbus's life was spent sailing. He traveled on Portuguese ships and lived in Lisbon and the British Isles. Stopping briefly in a foreign land, he constantly drew geographical maps and made new travel plans.
It still remains a mystery how he managed to draw up a plan for himself. shortcut from Europe to India. His calculations were based on the discoveries of the 15th century and the fact that the Earth is spherical.
Having gathered 90 volunteers in 1492-1493, he set off on a journey across the Atlantic Ocean on three ships. He became the discoverer of the central part of the Bahamas archipelago, the Greater and Lesser Antilles. He is responsible for the discovery of the northeastern coast of Cuba.
The second expedition, which lasted from 1493 to 1496, already consisted of 17 ships and 2.5 thousand people. He discovered the islands of Dominica, the Lesser Antilles, and the island of Puerto Rico. After 40 days of sailing, arriving in Castile, he notified the government of the opening of a new route to Asia.
After 3 years, having assembled 6 ships, he led an expedition across the Atlantic. In Haiti, because of an envious denunciation of his success, Columbus was arrested and shackled. He received release, but kept the shackles all his life, as a symbol of betrayal.
He was the discoverer of America. Until the end of his life, he mistakenly believed that it was connected to Asia by a thin isthmus. He believed that the sea route to India was opened by him, although history later showed the fallacy of his delusions.
Vasco da Gama. He was lucky enough to live during the era of great geographical discoveries. Perhaps that is why he dreamed of traveling and dreamed of becoming a discoverer of uncharted lands.
He was a nobleman. The family was not the most noble, but had ancient roots. As a young man, he became interested in mathematics, navigation and astronomy. Since childhood he hated secular society, playing the piano and French, which noble nobles tried to “show off”.
Determination and organizational skills made Vasco da Gama close to Emperor Charles VIII, who, having decided to create an expedition to open a sea route to India, appointed him in charge.
Four new ships, specially built for the journey, were placed at his disposal. Vasco da Gama was equipped with the latest navigational instruments and provided naval artillery.
A year later, the expedition reached the shores of India, stopping in the first city of Calicut (Kozhikode). Despite cold meeting natives and even military clashes, the goal was achieved. Vasco da Gama became the discoverer of the sea route to India.
They discovered the mountainous and desert regions of Asia, made bold expeditions to the Far North, they “wrote” history, glorifying the Russian land.
Great Russian travelers
Miklouho-Maclay was born into a noble family, but experienced poverty at the age of 11 when his father died. He was always a rebel. At the age of 15, he was arrested for participating in a student demonstration and imprisoned for three days in the Peter and Paul Fortress. For participating in student unrest, he was expelled from the gymnasium and further prohibited from entering any higher institution. Having left for Germany, he received his education there. 
The famous naturalist Ernst Haeckel became interested in the 19-year-old boy, inviting him to his expedition to study marine fauna.
In 1869, returning to St. Petersburg, he enlisted the support of the Russian Geographical Society, goes to explore New Guinea. It took a year to prepare the expedition. He sailed to the shore of the Coral Sea, and when he set foot on land he had no idea that his descendants would name this place after him.
Having lived more than a year in New Guinea, he not only discovered new lands, but also taught the natives to grow corn, pumpkin, beans and fruit trees. He studied the life of the natives on the island of Java, the Louisiads and the Solomon Islands. He spent 3 years in Australia.
He died at 42 years old. Doctors diagnosed him with severe deterioration of the body.
Afanasy Nikitin is the first Russian traveler to visit India and Persia. Returning back, he visited Somalia, Turkey and Muscat. His notes “Walking across the Three Seas” became valuable historical and literary aids. He described medieval India simply and truthfully in his notes.
Coming from a peasant family, he proved that even a poor person can travel to India. The main thing is to set a goal.
The world has not revealed all its secrets to man. There are still people who dream of lifting the veil of unknown worlds.
Famous modern travelers
He is 60, but his soul is still full of thirst for new adventures. At the age of 58, he climbed to the top of Everest and conquered 7 of the greatest peaks together with climbers. He is fearless, purposeful, open to the unknown. His name is Fedor Konyukhov.And may the era of great discoveries be long behind us. It doesn't matter that the Earth has been photographed thousands of times from space. May all places on the globe be discovered by travelers and discoverers. He, like a child, believes that there is still a lot of unknown in the world.
He has 40 expeditions and ascents to his credit. He crossed seas and oceans, was at the North and South Poles, completed 4 circumnavigations of the world, and crossed the Atlantic 15 times. Of these, one time was on a rowing boat. He made most of his travels alone.
Everyone knows his name. His programs had a television audience of millions. He is the one great man, who gave this world the unusual beauty of nature, hidden from view in the bottomless depths. Fedor Konyukhov visited different places on our planet, including the hottest place in Russia, which is located in Kalmykia. The website features Jacques-Yves Cousteau, perhaps the most famous traveler in the world
Even during the war, he continued his experiments and research into the underwater world. He decided to dedicate his first film to sunken ships. And the Germans who occupied France allowed him to study research activities and conduct filming.
He dreamed of a ship that would be equipped with modern technology for filming and observation. Helped him completely stranger, who gave Cousteau a small military minesweeper. After renovation work, it became the famous ship "Calypso".
The ship's crew included researchers: a journalist, a navigator, a geologist, and a volcanologist. His wife was his assistant and companion. Later, 2 of his sons took part in all expeditions.
Cousteau is recognized as the best specialist in underwater research. He received an offer to head the famous Oceanographic Museum in Monaco. He not only studied the underwater world, but also was involved in protecting the marine and ocean habitats.
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GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES, a conventional term adopted mainly in historical literature, denoting the largest geographical discoveries of European travelers in the 15th - mid-17th centuries. In foreign literature, the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries is usually limited to the mid-15th - mid-16th centuries. IN Russian literature Great geographical discoveries are divided into two periods: the first - mid-15th - mid-16th centuries, the second - mid-16th - mid-17th centuries.
Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa
Great geographical discoveries became possible thanks to the successes of European science and technology. By the 15th century, sailing ships (caravels) that were reliable enough for ocean navigation were created, the compass and sea charts were improved, experience gained, necessary for long-distance navigation. A major role in the Great Geographical Discoveries was played by the established idea that the Earth was spherical, with which the idea of the possibility of a western sea route to India across the Atlantic Ocean was associated. The Turkish conquests also forced the search for new trade routes, which blocked traditional merchant ties with the East through the Mediterranean Sea. Europeans hoped to find wealth in overseas lands: gems and metals, exotic goods and spices, ivory and walrus tusks.
The Portuguese were the first to launch systematic expeditions in the Atlantic Ocean. Portugal's activity at sea was predetermined by its geographical location in the far west of Europe and the historical conditions that developed after the end of the Portuguese Reconquista. All the strength and energy of the Portuguese kingdom was aimed at searching for new lands overseas, on the African coast. It was there that the Portuguese kings saw the source of the future glory and wealth of their state.
Traditionally, Portugal's successes at sea are associated with the name of Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460). He was not only an organizer of sea expeditions, but also seriously engaged in the development of open lands. In 1416, the Portuguese sailor G. Velho, following south along Africa, discovered the Canary Islands, in 1419 the Portuguese nobles Zarco and Vaz Teixeira discovered the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo, in 1431 V. Cabral - the Azores.
During the 15th century, Portuguese caravels explored the sea route along the west coast of Africa, reaching increasingly southern latitudes. In 1482-1486, Diogo Can (Cao) crossed the equator, discovered the mouth of the Congo River and walked along the coast of Africa to Cape Cross. Kahn discovered the Namibian deserts, thereby disproving the legend that had existed since the time of Ptolemy about the impassability of the tropics. In 1487-1488, Bartolomeu Dias made a new unprecedented voyage to the south. He reached the southern tip of Africa and went around it, opening the cape Good Hope. Dias' voyage opened up the prospect for the Portuguese to establish a sea route to India around Africa.
Opening of sea routes to America and India
The successes of the Portuguese aroused interest in maritime expeditions in neighboring Spain. Based on the idea that the Earth was spherical, the navigator Christopher Columbus proposed trying to reach India by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. The Spanish government allocated him three caravels (the largest with a displacement of 280 tons), and in 1492 an expedition led by Columbus reached one of the Bahamas, thereby discovering America. In 1592-1504, he made four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, discovered the Greater Antilles and part of the Lesser Antilles, the coast of the South and Central America. Columbus died in 1506, fully confident that he had discovered new way to India.
News of the Spanish discovery of new lands in the west stimulated the efforts of the Portuguese. In 1497-1498, Vasco da Gama circumnavigated Africa on four ships and, with the help of Arab pilots, reached real India. In Spain and Portugal, marine expeditions were equipped annually, which made overseas voyages and discovered new lands. Others also became interested in overseas countries European states. In 1497-1498, England equipped expeditions led by the Italian navigator John Cabot, who reached the shores of North America near the island of Newfoundland. In 1500, the Portuguese squadron under the command of Pedro Cabral, heading to India, was greatly diverted due to the equatorial current and reached Brazil, which Cabral mistook for an island. Then he continued his voyage, circumnavigated Africa and proceeded through the Mozambique Channel to India. Like previous travelers, Cabral considered the land he discovered in the west to be part of Asia.
The travels of the navigator Amerigo Vespucci were important for understanding the essence of the discovery of Christopher Columbus. In 1499-1504, he made four voyages to the shores of America, first as part of a Spanish expedition led by Alonso Ojeda, and then under the Portuguese flag. Having compared the data obtained, Spanish and Portuguese navigators discovered the entire northern coast of South America and its east coast to 25° south latitude, Vespucci came to the conclusion that the discovered lands were not Asia, but a new continent, and proposed calling it the “New World”. In 1507, the German cartographer and publisher Martin Waldseemüller, in the preface to Vespucci's book, proposed the name " New World"in honor of Amerigo - America (without Vespucci's knowledge) and this name came into use. In 1538 it was applied to Mercator's map and to South and North America.
Conquest of America by the conquistadors. Voyage of Magellan.
John Cabot's explorations in North America were continued by his son Sebastian Cabot. In 1506-1509, leading English expeditions, he tried to find the so-called Northwest Passage to India and managed to reach Hudson Bay. Having failed to find a short route to India, England showed little interest in the open lands overseas.
In 1513, the Spanish expedition of Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The difference between America and Asia was finally confirmed by Ferdinand Magellan, who carried out the first circumnavigation of the world (1519-1521), which became practical evidence of the sphericity of the Earth. The expedition led by Magellan explored the southeastern part of South America, discovered the strait between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (the Strait of Magellan) and sailed through the southern part of the Pacific Ocean. Magellan visited the Mariana and Philippine Islands (where he died in a skirmish with the natives). Of the 239 people who set sail with him, 21 returned to Europe. This expedition established the presence of a huge ocean between America and Asia, and gave ideas about the relative sizes of land and sea on the globe.
In 1513-1525, the Spanish conquistadors J. Ponce de Leon, F. Cordova, J. Grijalva discovered the entire eastern coast of South and Central America, the Gulf Coast, and the Florida Peninsula. Hernan Cortes conquered Mexico, the power of the Spanish king was established in the islands Caribbean Sea and in Central America. The search for gold, the mythical country of Eldorado, led the conquistadors far into the depths of the American continent. In 1526-1530, Sebastian Cabot, who switched to Spanish service, explored the lower reaches of the Parana River and discovered the lower reaches of the Paraguay River. In the second quarter of the 16th century, F. Pizarro, D. Almagro, P. Valdivia conquered Peru and Chile; Francisco Orellana sailed the Amazon from the Andes to the mouth in 1542. By 1552, the Spaniards had explored the entire Pacific coast of South America and discovered largest rivers continent (Amazon, Orinoco, Parana, Paraguay), explored the Andes from 10° north latitude to 40° south latitude.
In the second quarter of the 16th century, French navigators also achieved significant success. G. Verrazano (1524) and J. Cartier (1534-1535) discovered the eastern coast of North America and the St. Lawrence River. In 1540-1542, the Spaniards E. Soto and F. Coronado traveled to the Southern Appalachians and the Southern Rocky Mountains, to the basins of the Colorado and Mississippi rivers.
Russian explorers. Northeast and Northwest passages.
The new period of great geographical discoveries begins at the end of the 16th century. If previously the leading role was played by Spanish and Portuguese sailors, then from now on representatives of other countries also play an equal role with them. Holland was particularly active, having achieved independence from Spain and short term became a leading maritime trading nation.
The honor of discovering Northeast Asia and the vast expanses of Siberia belongs to Russian explorers. Pomors have long inhabited the coast White Sea, went on long voyages on small sailing boats, discovered the shores of the Arctic, the islands of the Arctic Ocean (Grumant). After the conquest of the Kazan Khanate, the Russian state was able to begin expansion to the east. In 1582-1585, Ermak Timofeevich, crossing the Ural Mountains, defeated the troops Tatar Khan Kuchum, thereby beginning the development of Siberia. In 1587 the city of Tobolsk was founded, long time remained the capital of Russian Siberia. In the north Western Siberia On the Taz River in 1601, the city of Mangazeya was founded - a center of fur trade and a stronghold for further advancement to the east. Russian explorers - Cossacks and servicemen - discovered the basins of the Yenisei and Lena rivers, walked all of Siberia from west to east, and in 1639 I. Yu. Moskvitin reached the coast Sea of Okhotsk. By the middle of the 17th century, K. Kurochkin, M. Stadukhin, I. Perfilyev, I. Rebrov traced the course of all the great Siberian rivers. Vasily Poyarkov and Erofey Khabarov in 1649-1653 with their troops went to the Amur. Explorers walked around the entire northern coast of Asia, discovering the Yamal, Taimyr, and Chukotka peninsulas. The expedition of Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnev was the first to cross the Bering Strait, which separates Asia and North America. In 1697-1699, Vladimir Atlasov's campaign against Kamchatka completed the discoveries of Russian explorers in Siberia.
During this period, the minds of sailors in northern European countries were dominated by the idea of opening a direct sea route to Tropical Asia from Northern Europe. It was assumed that such a path should exist somewhere in the east - the Northeast Passage, or in the west - the Northwest Passage. Attempts to find a new route to Asia led to intensive study of the North Atlantic and Arctic. English and Dutch sailors played a leading role in the search for the Northeast Passage. The Dutch navigator Willem Barents in 1594 walked along the western coast of Novaya Zemlya to its northern tip, and in 1596 reached Spitsbergen. During these voyages, the Northern Sea Route showed little promise, but a direct trade route was established from Northwestern Europe to Russia through Arkhangelsk.
From 1576 to 1631, English navigators M. Frobisher, D. Davis, G. Hudson, W. Baffin undertook an energetic search for the Northwest Passage. John Davis in 1583-1587 conducted three voyages in the waters of the North Atlantic, discovered the strait between Greenland and America (Davis Strait), and explored the coast of the Labrador Peninsula. Henry Hudson made four expeditions to North America in 1607-1611. A hundred years after Sebastian Cabot, he again passed through the strait between Labrador and Baffin Island into a vast gulf in the interior of North America. Later, both the strait and the bay were named after Hudson. A river in eastern North America is also named after him, at the mouth of which the city of New York later arose. Hudson's fate ended tragically; in the spring of 1611, the mutinous crew of his ship landed him and his teenage son in a boat in the middle of the ocean, where they disappeared without a trace. William Baffin sailed in the Arctic waters in 1612-1616: he made expeditions to the shores of Spitsbergen, explored the Hudson The bay and sea, later named after him, discovered a number of islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, moving along the western coast of Greenland and reaching 78° north latitude.
In the first quarter of the 17th century, Europeans began to explore North America. English, Dutch, and French settlements appeared on its Atlantic coast. At first, France achieved the greatest success in this region, due in no small part to the activities of the first governor of Canada, Samuel Champlain. In 1605-1616, he not only explored part of the eastern coast of North America, but also traveled deep into the continent: he discovered the Northern Appalachians, climbed up the St. Lawrence River to the Great Lakes and reached Lake Huron. By 1648, the French had discovered all five Great Lakes.
Discovery of Australia. The significance of the Great Geographical Discoveries.
At the same time, at the beginning of the 17th century, European sailors penetrated the most distant part of the world from Europe - the areas located south of Southeast Asia. The Spaniard Luis Torres discovered the southern coast of New Guinea in 1606 and passed through the strait separating Asia and Australia (Torres Strait). In the same 1606, the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon discovered Australia (west coast of the Cape York Peninsula). In 1642-1642, the Dutchman Abel Tasman made a series of voyages in this area and discovered Tasmania, New Zealand, Fiji, and part of the coast of Northern and Western Australia. Tasman identified Australia as a single landmass and named it New Holland. But Holland did not have enough resources to explore the new continent, and a century later it had to be rediscovered.
Great geographical discoveries had world-historical significance. The contours of the inhabited continents were established, most of the earth's surface was explored, and an idea was obtained of the shape of the Earth as a huge ball and its size. The great geographical discoveries gave impetus to the development of not only geography itself, but many other areas of natural science, providing extensive new material for botany, zoology, and ethnography. As a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, Europeans were first introduced to a number of new agricultural crops (potatoes, maize, tomatoes, tobacco).
As a result of the discovery of new countries and new trade routes by Europeans, trade acquired a global character, and there was a manifold increase in the goods in circulation. The movement of trade routes from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean contributed to the rise of some countries (England, Holland) and the decline of others (trading republics in Italy). The colonial system formed after the Great Geographical Discoveries became one of the levers for the initial accumulation of capital, while at the same time the flow of gold, silver and precious metals pouring into Europe from America caused the Price Revolution.
The Age of Great Geographical Discovery is the most important stage in the history of mankind. This is a time when the outlines of continents, seas and oceans become more accurate, technical instruments are improved, and the leading countries of that time send sailors in search of new rich lands. In this lesson you will learn about the sea expeditions of Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan, as well as their discovery of new lands.
Background
Among the reasons for the Great Geographical Discoveries are:
Economic
After the era of the Crusades, Europeans developed strong trade ties with the East. In the East, Europeans bought spices, fabrics, and jewelry. In the 15th century The land caravan routes along which Europeans traded with eastern countries were captured by the Turks. The task of finding a sea route to India arose.
Technological
The compass and astrolabe (an instrument for measuring latitude and longitude) were improved.
New types of ships appeared - caravel, karakka and galleon. They were distinguished by their spaciousness and powerful sailing equipment.
Navigation charts were invented - portolans.
Now Europeans could not only make traditional coastal voyages (that is, mainly along the coast), but also go far into the open sea.
Events
1445- an expedition organized by Henry the Navigator reached Cape Verde (the western point of Africa). The island of Madeira, the Canary Islands, and part of the Azores were discovered.
1453- Constantinople is captured by the Turks.
1471- The Portuguese reached the equator for the first time.
1488- Bartolomeu Dias' expedition reached the most southern point Africa - Cape of Good Hope.
1492- Christopher Columbus discovered the islands of San Salvador, Haiti, Cuba in the Caribbean Sea.
1497-1499- Vasco da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut, circumnavigating Africa. For the first time, the route to the East through the Indian Ocean was opened.
1519- Ferdinand Magellan sets off on an expedition in which he discovers the Pacific Ocean. And in 1521 it reaches the Mariana and Philippine Islands.
Participants
Rice. 2. Astrolabe ()
Rice. 3. Caravel ()
Successes have also been achieved in cartography. European cartographers began to draw maps with more accurate outlines of the coasts of Europe, Asia and North America. The Portuguese invented navigational maps. In addition to the outlines of the coast, they depicted settlements, obstacles encountered along the way, as well as the location of ports. These navigation charts were called portolans.
The discoverers became Spaniards and Portuguese. The idea of conquering Africa was born in Portugal. However, the knightly cavalry turned out to be helpless in the sands. Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator(Fig. 4) decided to try the sea route along the west coast of Africa. The expeditions he organized discovered the island of Madeira, part of the Azores, and the Canary Islands. In 1445, the Portuguese reached the western point of Africa - Cape Verde.. Somewhat later the coast of the Gulf of Guinea was discovered. It was discovered there large number gold, ivory. Hence the name - Gold Coast, Ivory Coast. At the same time, African slaves were discovered, which were traded by local leaders. Portugal became the first European country, which began to sell live goods.
Rice. 4. Henry the Navigator ()
After the death of Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese reached the equator in 1471. In 1488, an expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa - Cape of Good Hope. Having circumnavigated Africa, this expedition entered the Indian Ocean. However, due to the revolt of the sailors, Bartolomeu Dias was forced to return back. His path continued Vasco da Gama (Fig. 5), which in 1497-1499. circumnavigated Africa and after an 8-month voyage arrived at the Indian port of Calicut (Fig. 6).
Rice. 5. Vasco da Gama ()
Rice. 6. Opening of the sea route to India, Vasco da Gama’s route ()
Simultaneously with Portugal, the search for a new sea route to India began Spain, which at that time was ruled Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. Christopher Columbus(Fig. 7) proposed a new plan - to reach India, moving west across the Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus shared the view that the earth was spherical. On August 3, 1492, Columbus set out from Spain on three caravels “Santa Maria”, “Nina” and “Pinta” in search of India (Fig. 8). On October 12, 1492, a shot was heard on the Pinta caravel. This was the signal: the sailors had reached the island they named San Salvador, which translated means “holy savior.” After exploring the island, they went south and discovered two more islands: Haiti (then Hispaniola) and the island of Cuba.
Rice. 7. Christopher Columbus ()
Rice. 8. Route of Christopher Columbus ()
Columbus's first expedition lasted 225 days and discovered Caribbean Sea. During the next three expeditions, Columbus discovered the coast of Central America and the northern coast of South America. However, the Spanish crown was not satisfied with the amount of gold that came into the country. Soon they turned away from Columbus. He died in 1506 in poverty, confident that he had discovered a new sea route to India. The continent discovered by Columbus was originally called West Indies(Western India). Only later was the name given to the continent America.
The rivalry between Spain and Portugal led to the first division of the world in history. IN 1494 year was concluded Treaty of Tordesillas, according to which a conventional meridian was drawn along the Atlantic Ocean somewhat west of the Azores Islands. All newly discovered lands and seas to the west of it were to belong to Spain, and to the east - to Portugal. However Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world corrected this document.
Back in 1513, the Spaniard Vasco de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean. He called him then South Sea. In the autumn of 1519, on five caravels with a crew of 253 sailors, Ferdinand Magellan (Fig. 9) set off on his journey (Fig. 10). His goal was to find a route across the Atlantic Ocean to the Moluccas (spice islands). After a year of travel, Magellan's team entered a narrow strait, which was later named Strait of Magellan. Having passed through it, Magellan's team managed to enter the previously unknown ocean. This ocean was named Quiet.
Rice. 9. Ferdinand Magellan ()
Rice. 10. Ferdinand Magellan's first trip around the world ()
In March 1521, Magellan's team reached the Mariana Islands and then landed in the Philippines, where Magellan himself died in a skirmish with local residents. His team managed to reach the Moluccas. Three years later, only one ship with 17 sailors returned home. Magellan's first trip around the world proved that the Earth is spherical..
European exploration of the New World took the form conquests - conquests. Along with the conquest, the resettlement of colonists from Europe to the New World began.
Great geographical discoveries changed the picture of the world. First, it was proven that the Earth is spherical. A new continent was also discovered - America, as well as a new ocean - the Pacific. The outlines of many continents, seas and oceans were clarified. Great geographical discoveries were the first step towards the creation of a world market. They shifted trade routes. So, trading cities Venice and Genoa lost their key importance in European trade. Their place was taken by ocean ports: Lisbon, London, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Seville. Due to the influx of precious metals into Europe from the New World, a price revolution occurred. Prices for precious metals fell, while prices for food and raw materials for production increased.
Great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the colonial redistribution of the world and the domination of Europeans in Asia, Africa and America. The exploitation of slave labor and trade with the colonies allowed European trading circles to enrich themselves, which became one of the prerequisites for the formation of capitalism. Also, the colonization of America led to the destruction of ancient American cultures. Great geographical discoveries became one of the reasons for the food revolution in Europe. Previously unknown crops were introduced: corn, tomatoes, cocoa beans, potatoes and tobacco.
References
- Boytsov, M.A. Magellan's Path: Early Modern Times. History reading book. - M., 2006.
- Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.
- Verlinden Ch., Mathis G. “Conquerors of America. Columbus, Cortes." Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
- Lange P.V. Like the sun... The life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the world. - M.: Progress, 1988. ; Artist
- What discovery was Ferdinand Magellan famous for, and what continent did Christopher Columbus discover?
- Do you know any other famous navigators and the territories they discovered?