The novel “What to do?” Issues, genre, composition. "Old World". in the image of Chernyshevsky. "What to do?" N.G. Chernyshevsky. The problem of genre. System of images. Style

23.04.2019

The question of the “primary sources” of a work is of fundamental importance for understanding artistic method the author of “What is to be done?”, its genre and plot-compositional structure. What is the relationship between reality and the creative imagination of the artist-novelist?

What are the relationships between the real life of the young generation of commoners of the sixties and the worldview of the heroes of the novel, their educational practice and the socio-philosophical concept of the author-thinker?

How did the reorientation of genre criteria from a love-intimate novel to a social-philosophical novel take place?

How were the traditional plot solutions of predecessors used and revised, and on what paths was the original genre structure of the new narrative built?

Chernyshevsky believed that in life every minute there are “poetic events” that “in their development and denouement” often have “artistic completeness and completeness,” and “the prototype for a poetic person very often serves as a real person.”

It is no coincidence that actual events and the lives of people he knew aroused in him the need to comprehend them in an artistic diary essay (1848) and in the story “Theory and Practice” of 1849-1850. (events caused by the marriage of V.P. Lobodovsky, Chernyshevsky’s university friend), and the original creativity in the story “Understanding” (on which Chernyshevsky also worked during his university years) historically existing persons served as inspiration (Louise, Goethe’s sister).

IN scientific literature prototypes of many have been established quite convincingly literary characters from the work of Chernyshevsky: V. A. Obruchev - for Alferyev (from the story of the same name), N. A. Dobrolyubov - for Levitsky, K. D. Kavelin - for Ryazantsev, S. I. Serakovsky - for Sokolovsky, N. A. Milyutin - for Savelov, and N.G. Chernyshevsky himself - for Volgin (novel “Prologue”).

All researchers of the novel “What is to be done?” they agree that the songs and additional explanations of the “lady in mourning,” especially when performing Walter Scott’s Scottish romance-ballad “The Robber,” reproduce in a disguised form the scene of Chernyshevsky’s explanation with his bride Olga Sokratovna Vasilyeva.

“Of course,” he clarifies the artist’s right to fiction, “I had to slightly alter these facts so that they wouldn’t point fingers at the people I’m talking about, that, they say, here she is, whom he renamed Vera Pavlovna, but for real This is her name, and her second husband, whom he transferred to the Medical Academy, is our famous scientist so-and-so, who serves in a different department, precisely in this department.”

Researchers have different points of view on the advisability of studying the prototypes of the heroes of “What is to be done?” For example, Academician M.V. Nechkina believes that “Rakhmetov’s type authorizes researchers to search for all prototypes, especially those indicated by the author himself.”

It should only be noted that the prototype will never be identical to the artistic image. In particular, despite a number of similar details in the behavior of Rakhmetov and P. A. Bakhmetov, about whom much has already been written, it is by no means possible to put an equal sign between them.

To a certain extent, real sources provide an opportunity to look into the writer’s creative laboratory. In this sense, such a parallel, for example, is curious. Rakhmetov's interest in Newton's commentary on the Apocalypse of St. John" as a "classical source on the issue of mixing madness with intelligence" echoes the work of the "landlord" N.I. Utin on an article on the Apocalypse for " Encyclopedic Dictionary”, published with the participation of P. L. Lavrov, and with a translation of the Bible carried out by V. I. Kelsiev and published in London (1860).

However, there are few such transparent hints about Rakhmetov’s connection with his prototypes in the novel. All data on the similarity of the “special person” with the most prominent figures of the period of the revolutionary situation (N.A. Dobrolyubov, P.D. Ballod, brothers N.A. and A.A. Serno-Solovyevich, etc.) are of a general nature. But even in this case, we can come to the conclusion that when working on the image of Rakhmetov (“I have met so far only eight examples of this breed (including two women)”), the writer artistically summarized the main thing in worldview and psychology, in personal and social practice of friends in the revolutionary underground.

Considering that "the original already has general meaning in his individuality,” Chernyshevsky saw the writer’s task in understanding “the essence of character in a real person,” to understand “how this person would act and speak in the circumstances among which he will be placed by the poet,” “to convey it to such as the poet understands it.”

This was the artistic and transformative function of the novelist, preventing the danger of illustrativeness and naturalism.

It is noteworthy that democratic writers of the 60s and 70s. XIX century, continuing the traditions of Chernyshevsky, they relied in their creative practice on real historical events of their time, artistically transforming them. It is quite likely that N. Bazhin, while working on the story “Stepan Rulev” (1864), became acquainted with the first steps of the revolutionary organization N. A. Ishutin - I. A. Khudyakov (1863-1866).

In any case, one of the characters in his story, Ilya Kudryakov, Stepan Rulev’s “best friend and comrade-in-arms,” resembles the greatest revolutionary figure Ivan Khudyakov (similarity of surnames: Khudyakov - Kudryakov; lameness of both as a result of injury suffered from a horse in childhood; spiritual kinship and a similar method of educational activity of folklorists and booksellers wandering through villages).

I. Kushchevsky in the novel “Nikolai Negorev, or the Prosperous Russian” (1870) responded to the events of the first revolutionary situation, spoke about the activities of the sixties, who organized revolutionary “societies” and “branches” and decided “not to miss the favorable opportunity to announce the decree on the liberation of the peasants” for a popular uprising.

With great warmth, the author writes about a member of this “branch” Andrei Negorev, who distributed brochures and proclamations, who later became a political emigrant, about Overin, who, under the influence of these proclamations, rushed “into the abyss” and led a peasant uprising.

Kushchevsky deliberately brings Overin’s feat closer to the revolutionary activities of Chernyshevsky, when in the description of Overin’s civil execution he historically accurately reproduces the place, circumstances and details of the government abuse of Nikolai Gavrilovich (the bouquet of flowers thrown from the crowd to the “criminal in the pillory” is not forgotten!).

The novel by V. Bervi-Flerovsky “For Life and Death” (1877), in its first part is largely correlated with the social events of the 60s; the title character of this part, Pavlush Skripitsyn, even meets Chernyshevsky himself!

The second part of Flerovsky’s work “Disciples” corresponds to the time and circumstances of the propaganda activities of the “Chaikovites” and “Dolgushinites” in workers’ circles (early 70s), and the third part (“New Religion”) is devoted to the events of “going to the people” 1874— 1875 This novel combines all the key problems that occupied advanced Russian society for a long period of time (40-70s of the 19th century).

A participant in the revolutionary underground, S. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky captured in his works (“Underground Russia”, 1881; “Andrei Kozhukhov”, 1889, etc.) the mood and circumstances of the heroic struggle against tsarism of his comrades from the era of “going to the people” (Peter Kropotkin , Dmitry Lizogub, Vera Zasulich, Dmitry Klements) and the “People's Will” period (Sofya Perovskaya, Stepan Khalturin, Alexander Mikhailov).

Some researchers of the novel “What is to be done?” believe that Chernyshevsky expanded the range of literary sources by turning to the method of thought experiment adopted in the exact sciences, when “a scientist, based on the data of his theory, creates a model of an experiment that in reality cannot be produced at a given technical level, and thus proves the fundamental correctness ideas."

“The method of hypothetical simplification of situations and conflicts” is transferred in this case to the structure of a utopian novel, which “is, as it were, a description of the “mental” implementation of an idea into life.

This experience is “described” as real, and the novel is often perceived by readers as a scientific description.” The hypothetical research method of Chernyshevsky the novelist is seen primarily in the story of Vera Pavlovna’s organization of a sewing workshop-commune and in the description of socialist society (“Vera Pavlovna’s Fourth Dream”) as a historically already emerged and inevitably growing process of social reorganization.

These observations undoubtedly help clarify the origins social psychology, the worldview of the novel's heroes. They allow us to concretely imagine the internal “mechanism” of the artistic embodiment of real people’s dreams of a bright future.

However, when deciding the relationship between reality and fiction, there is no reason to “translate” Chernyshevsky’s entire novel from a realistic work into the category of utopian novels, to reduce the “first cases” of personal and social activity of “new people” who have “historical interest” only to “imitation of experience” "

A work that imitates objectivity and accuracy of description, achieving verisimilitude and fascination of the narrative in the name of proving some author’s postulate, will have nothing in common with realistic art and in best case scenario will perform an illustrative function.

Contemporaries perceived the novel “What is to be done?” otherwise. Prominent figure revolutionary movement 60s N. I. Utin (who later became one of the organizers of the Russian section of the First International) wrote on February 22, 1864 to N. P. Ogarev about Chernyshevsky’s work: “I in no way agree that his goal is fantastic, because he doesn’t even think of talking that everything is achievable this very minute, on the contrary, he shows that you need to go step by step, and then says: this is what will happen at the end of your labors and aspirations, this is how you can live. And therefore, “work and work.”

The principles of the socialist organization of labor associations have already become accessible to the best part of the mixed intelligentsia of the 60s. XIX century The socialist ideal in the worldview of the “sixties” (even in a utopian version!) is reality, not fantasy.

A hypothetical calculation of the profits that each seamstress receives from the workshop, their benefits from living together and a common household - this is the operation of “real”, “living” people who know what to do, in the name of what to live. Therefore, Chernyshevsky writes about workshop-communes as labor associations that actually exist in life.

Were there really sources for a realistic description of Vera Pavlovna’s sewing workshop?

Chernyshevsky, talking about the work of Vera Pavlovna’s workshop, sought to somehow respond to the aspirations of women of the 60s. improve your working conditions. According to statistical data from 1860, it is known that in St. Petersburg “4,713 artisans were content with a salary of 2-3-5 rubles. per month on the master's table and tea. Those who worked at home, living with their husbands or relatives, earned 2-3 rubles a month on gloves and agramant, and even less on stockings.”

The circle of Maria Vasilyevna Trubnikova carried out energetic work to improve the lives of women in need. In 1859, he founded the “Society of Cheap Apartments and Other Benefits for Needy Residents” of St. Petersburg. The company first rented apartments for its clients in different parts city, but then with the money raised from the lottery, a large house was bought, into which all the poor were transferred.

“At the same time, the Society had the opportunity to begin fulfilling its cherished desire - the establishment of a school for children and a sewing workshop, where residents could receive and perform work and where outside seamstresses could also come and do their own work on the sewing machines provided to them free of charge.

N.V. Stasova worked especially energetically in the workshop, through whose efforts she soon received a large order from the commissariat, which provided her with work for a long time. At the school, teaching was conducted first by members of the society, and then by teachers invited for this purpose.” However, we do not yet see the embodiment of socialist principles in the work of the workshop.

The same memoirs state that M. V. Trubnikova’s circle, having begun its social activities with philanthropy, then “evolved, reflecting the influence of other, often more radical circles, for example, Chernyshevsky’s circle (the “Land and Freedom” society), with whom Maria personally Vasilyevna was directly connected through her friends, the brothers Nikolai and Alexander Serno-Solovievich, and to whom she was drawn by her own democratic and anti-monarchist tendencies.”

It is interesting to remember another attempt by M.V. Trubnikova’s circle - to create a “Women’s Labor Society”. Information about him expands our understanding of the era of the 60s. and once again testify to the great difficulties facing enthusiasts of the women's movement.

The society was conceived with broad plans. It should have the right to establish various workshops: sewing, bookbinding, translation offices and publishing children's and scientific books. P. L. Lavrov took part in drawing up its charter in 1863.

Only part of this program was implemented. At the beginning of 1863, it was possible to organize a women's artel or society of translators-publishers, which included 36 people (M. V. Trubnikova, N. V. Stasova, A. N. Engelgardt, N. A. Belozerskaya, M. A. Menzhinskaya , A. P. Filosofova, V. V. Ivasheva, E. A. Stackenschneider, etc.). The bookbinding and binding of books published by the society were carried out by a women's bookbinding artel founded by V. A. Inostrantseva. Illustrations and engravings were also done by women.

Thus, there is every reason to believe that in the story about Vera Pavlovna’s work activity, Chernyshevsky relied on actual life facts. There have already been attempts to find new forms of organizing work, organizing everyday life and educating workers.

The description of the revolutionary educational work of Lopukhov, Kirsanov and Mertsalov among the sewing workshop workers has a vital basis. We know about the existence of Sunday schools for adults, organized by “landers”. And yet, actual facts from life were not enough to realize Chernyshevsky’s artistic vision.

In the novel, Vera Pavlovna’s workshop did not resemble an enterprise organized by Trubnikova’s circle. Therefore, the writer wrote in the draft version of the novel: “There is one more feature in the story that I invented: this is a workshop. In fact, Vera Pavlovna was not busy setting up a workshop; and I did not know such workshops as I described: they do not exist in our dear fatherland. She was actually [working on] something like Sunday school<...>not for children, but for adults."

Chernyshevsky had to, to a certain extent, “invent” Vera Pavlovna’s workshop. In this sense, the “hypothetical method of research” of Chernyshevsky the economist was really useful to Chernyshevsky the novelist as an additional, auxiliary way of artistic motivation for Vera Pavlovna’s plan to organize workshops according to the models proposed by “kind and smart people”, who wrote “many books about how to live in the world so that everyone can have a good time.”

However, it should be clarified that in this case the method of thought experiment has already been removed from the author and has become the property of Vera Pavlovna (“These are my thoughts”), a real sign of the intellectual achievements of the “new people.”

Subsequently, the reader of the novel learns that it turned out to be impossible to realize the socialist ideal in a country of autocratic despotism. As we know from the novel, after Kirsanov’s visit to the “enlightened husband” (a representative of the authorities) and conversation with him (XVII section of the fourth chapter), there was “nothing to think about the development of the enterprise, which was just asking to go forward.” The path to a new life in socialist labor associations lies only through revolution.

Chernyshevsky already had a theoretical justification for the difference between the dream of idle fantasy, divorced from reality, and the dream of a bright future, conducive to social progress. In the concept of reality, he included “not only the present, but also the past, as far as it is expressed in action, and the future, as far as it is prepared by the present.” This connection of the future with the present determines the artistic “compatibility” of realism and romanticism in “What is to be done?”

The fate of the works of utopian writers, who were forced to construct the elements of a new society from their own heads, because these elements were not yet clearly visible to everyone in the depths of the old society, depended on the great theoretical preparation and artistic tact of the author, on his ability to correctly reveal the historical patterns of the development of society .

The danger of “arbitrary regulation of details, and precisely those details for the prediction and depiction of which reality does not yet provide sufficient data,” lay in wait, according to M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, and the author of “What is to be done?” However, Chernyshevsky largely (as confirmed by the practice of the developed socialist society that has come to fruition in our time) avoided this danger.

As far as it was possible for him, when working on the novel, he used the achievements of science and technology of his time in order to more vividly, artistically recreate the picture of the future (the construction of canals and irrigation systems that had already begun at that time, the discovery of electricity, the use of aluminum in industry and in the home). everyday life, experience in growing fruit in greenhouses, architectural achievements).

However, all this is just a “hint” for the writer, an impetus for recreating a more sublime picture, but without this “hint” it was impossible to achieve a concrete emotional perception of the pictures of the future. For example, such a “hint” of the huge “crystal palace” that Vera Pavlovna sees in her dream was the Crystal Palace on Sydenham Hill in England. Chernyshevsky first described the “Paxton Palace” in the August issue of Sovremennik magazine for 1854.

Thus, the utopian pictures in Chernyshevsky’s novel, with many of their artistic details, were rooted in reality, and this prevented the danger of abstract schematism. Romantic solemnity and elation in the description of a bright and wonderful future corresponded to the laws of romantic art and their individual manifestation in the artistic form of dreams.

The latter, in turn, did not allow the reader to forget that he was touching the worldview and innermost dream of the real heroine - his contemporary.

Thus, in the complex relationship between historical reality and utopia, the real and the romantic, events from the lives of familiar people and “mental”, “hypothetical” situations and conflicts, the original artistic structure Chernyshevsky's novel, in which the first - realistic - link is the leading one both in its primary sources and in its artistic form.

“Chernyshevsky relies on realism, which stems from knowledge of life and has rich colors,” A.V. Lunacharsky asserted authoritatively. As for romantic tendencies in fiction about “new people”, then they, manifesting themselves in an increased craving for “idealization”, arise where “an aesthetically conscious need to fill the lack of real life material with lyricism and authorial conviction” is acutely felt.

The “first cases” of production activity of the heroes of “What is to be done?”, which have “historical interest”, are noteworthy in another respect. Talking about the organization of a sewing workshop-commune and Lopukhov’s educational activities among workers, Chernyshevsky essentially opened a new plot-organizing center for future novels about “new people.”

Sewing workshops, Sunday schools, educational readings for workers, and savings and loan banks were strongholds of propaganda activity for the raznochintsy revolutionaries and, naturally, were reflected in literature, laying solid foundations for a new plot and compositional structure of the work (N. Bazhin, “Stepan Rulev ", "The story of one partnership"; I. Omulevsky, "Step by step"; K. Stanyukovich, "Without outcome"; P. Zasodimsky, "Chronicle of the village of Smurin", etc.).

In Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?” For the first time in literature, the idea of an artistic depiction of a socialist labor association was realized, the leader of collective production from among the heterodox intelligentsia was shown, and ways were outlined to increase the general culture and political consciousness of the “common people” through Sunday schools. Chernyshevsky foresaw the need to study the experience of the revolutionary labor movement in the West (the trip abroad of Rakhmetov and Lopukhov).

In N. Bazhin’s story “Stepan Rulev” the influence of the novel “What is to be done?” is reinforced by impressions of the efforts of the Ishutin residents to set up a plant on an artisanal basis. The meaning of the main “enterprise” of Rulev and Walter is precisely the preparation of an artisanal plant in the Urals.

The works of I. Omulevsky “Step by Step” (1870) and K. Stanyukovich “No Exodus” (1873) continue to artistically develop the theme of propaganda among workers through Sunday schools, introducing the difficulties of the legal activities of these schools. Svetlov, the first of the “new people” in democratic literature, had to become acquainted with a spontaneous strike of workers and exert a still timid influence on its development within legal limits. G. Uspensky noticed in the worker Mikhail Ivanovich a stable tendency towards rebellion, towards protest against “squeezing” (“Ravage”, 1869).

In an upswing social movement at the turn of the 60-70s, the organization of the Russian section of the First International and the activities of the Great Propaganda Society in workers' circles, the populist propagandists themselves demanded that writers reflect the contacts of Russian revolutionaries with the workers' movement Western Europe(V. Troshchansky, “Ideals of our public figures”).

M. Kovalsky welcomes Svetlov’s activities. L. Shchegolev is developing a plan for a literary work from the life of workers, A. Obodovskaya is writing a story about the fate of a freedom-loving village boy who went through a school of social education at a factory (“Neustrashimko”). However, the creative embodiment of the working theme in literature was complicated by the underdevelopment of the proletarian movement in Russia.

In the early 70s. The artistic development of the “labor question” and the connections of Russian “enlightenment” with the revolutionary West was complicated by Bakunin-Nechaev propaganda, adventurism and the dictatorship of anarchists. S. Smirnova’s (Sazonova) novel “The Salt of the Earth” (1872) crossed the contradictory trends of the early 70s: on the one hand, for the first time in literature, the colorful image of the worker-agitator Levka Trezvov was recreated, combining the strength and skill of a hammer worker with talent a revolutionary propagandist who clearly explains to workers the need for social solidarity in the struggle for their rights; on the other hand, the image of Levka reflected the weaknesses of Nechaevism (demagoguery and ambition, “the desire to play a role,” adherence to the rule: “the end justifies the means”).

In the same novel, the idea of a socialist-type industrial association is replaced by propaganda for the Lassallean plan for creating a credit and industrial partnership under the patronage of the authorities.

In the second half of the 70s - early 80s. There is a noticeable tendency in the literature to rethink the work of the “new people” with workers. In 1877, Bervi-Flerovsky turns to the early 70s. and the activities of agitators from the Great Propaganda Society in workers’ “cells” (“For Life and Death”).

In the second part of the novel, Bervy is introduced artistic characterization different types of workers who went to the school of political education from Ispot and Anna Semyonovna, attention is drawn to the emergence of class-conscious workers with “a deeper and keener understanding of science than most educated young men” who are interested in the life and struggle of the working class abroad.

To the events of the early 70s. addressed in the novel “Two Brothers” (1880) by K. Stanyukovich. The hero of this novel, Mirzoev, has connections with Russian political emigration and gives lectures to workers.

Along with the populist interest in peasant revolts, Russian literature of the period of the second revolutionary situation shows attention to unrest among the workers (N. Zlatovratsky, “Golden Hearts,” 1877; A. Osipovich-Novodvorsky, “History,” 1882; O. Shapir, “One of many", 1879). Forest worker Abramov led a revolt of workers at a sugar factory; a technician at the Utyuzhinsky plant, Nezhinsky, who studied the experience of the proletarian movement in the West, systematically leads the workers’ struggle for their rights at four factories.

Not all works of democratic literature that recreate the artistic chronicle of the labor movement and the role of the various intelligentsia in it are given here.

However, the material presented is sufficient to convince oneself of the historical and literary prospects of the artistic discoveries of the author of “What is to be done?” when describing the organizational activities of “new people” in work collectives of a new type, which turned from a “thought experiment” of a semi-utopian nature into the real practice of propaganda work of the democratic intelligentsia in workers’ circles at the dawn of the proletarian movement in Russia. This is how new plot-organizing trends emerged in realistic literature, originating in Chernyshevsky’s first novel.

(It is noteworthy that in Chernyshevsky’s last (unfinished) novel “Reflections of Radiance,” written in Siberian exile (1879-1883), a story is introduced about Aurora Vasilievna’s organization of a labor gardening association and a factory on a collective basis).

History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983.

In literature classes, as a rule, attention is not often paid to Chernyshevsky’s work “What is to be done.” This is partly correct: delving into the endless dreams of Vera Pavlovna, analyzing the plot, which serves only as a frame for the main idea of the work, trying through the gnashing of teeth to make out the author’s not the most highly artistic and easy language, stumbling over almost every word - the exercise is long, tedious and not completely justified. From a literary point of view, this is not a good choice to consider. But what an influence this novel had on the development of Russian social thought of the 19th century! After reading it, you can understand how the most progressive thinkers of that time lived.

Nikolai Chernyshevsky was arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress for his radical statements against the government in force at that time. His work was born there. The history of the novel “What to Do” began in December 1862 (its author completed it in April 1863). Initially, the writer conceived it as a response to Turgenev’s book “Fathers and Sons,” where he portrayed a man of a new formation - the nihilist Bazarov. Evgenia comprehended tragic ending, but in contrast to him, Rakhmetov was created - a more perfect hero of the same mentality, who no longer suffered for Anna Odintsova, but was busy with business, and very productively.

In order to deceive the vigilant censors and the judicial commission, the author introduces a love triangle into the political utopia, which takes up most of the volume of the text. With this trick, he confused the officials, and they gave permission for publication. When the deception was revealed, it was already too late: the novel “What to Do” was distributed throughout the country in editions of Sovremennik and handwritten copies. The ban did not stop either the spread of the book or its imitation. It was removed only in 1905, and a year later individual copies were officially released. But for the first time in Russian it was published long before that, in 1867 in Geneva.

It is worth citing some quotes from contemporaries to understand how significant and necessary this book was for the people of that time.

The writer Leskov recalled: “They talked about Chernyshevsky’s novel not in a whisper, not quietly, but at the top of their lungs in the halls, on the porches, at Madame Milbret’s table and in the basement pub of the Stenbokov Passage. They shouted: “disgusting,” “charming,” “abomination,” etc. - all in different tones.”

The anarchist Kropotkin spoke enthusiastically about the work:

For Russian youth of that time it was a kind of revelation and turned into a program, became a kind of banner

Even Lenin awarded her his praise:

The novel “What is to be done?” completely plowed me deeply. This is a thing that gives a charge for life.

Genre

There is an antithesis in the work: the direction of the novel “What is to be done” is sociological realism, and the genre is utopia. That is, truth and fiction closely coexist in the book and give rise to a mixture of the present (objectively reflected realities of that time) and the future (the image of Rakhmetov, the dreams of Vera Pavlovna). That is why it caused such a resonance in society: people were sensitive to the prospects that Chernyshevsky put forward.

In addition, “What is to be done” is a philosophical and journalistic novel. He earned this title thanks to the hidden meanings that the author gradually introduced. He wasn’t even a writer, he simply used a literary form that was understandable to everyone to disseminate his political views and expressing your deep thoughts about a just social order tomorrow. In his work, the journalistic intensity is obvious, philosophical issues are illuminated, and the fictional plot serves only as a cover from the close attention of the censors.

What is the novel about?

It's time to tell you what the book “What to do?” is about. The action begins with an unknown man committing suicide by shooting himself and falling into the river. He turned out to be a certain Dmitry Lopukhov, a progressive-minded young man who was pushed to this desperate act by love and friendship.

The gist of the backstory of “What to Do” is this: main character Vera lives with an ignorant and rude family, where her calculating and cruel mother has established her own rules. She wants to marry her daughter to the rich son of the owner of the house where her husband works as a manager. A greedy woman does not disdain any means, she can even sacrifice her daughter’s honor. A moral and proud girl seeks salvation from her brother’s tutor, student Lopukhov. He is secretly engaged in her education, pitying her bright head. He arranges her escape from home under the auspices of a fictitious marriage. In fact, young people live like brother and sister, there are no feelings of love between them.

The “spouses” often hang out with like-minded people, where the heroine meets Lopukhov’s best friend, Kirsanov. Alexander and Vera develop mutual sympathy, but cannot be together because they are afraid of hurting their friend’s feelings. Dmitry became attached to his “wife”, discovered a multifaceted and strong personality in her, and was involved in her education. The girl, for example, does not want to sit on his neck and wants to arrange her own life by opening a sewing workshop where women in trouble could earn honest money. With the help of true friends, she realizes her dream, and before us opens a gallery of female images with life stories that characterize a vicious environment where the weaker sex has to fight for survival and defend honor.

Dmitry feels that he is disturbing his friends and fakes his suicide so as not to stand in their way. He loves and respects his wife, but understands that she will only be happy with Kirsanov. Naturally, no one knows about his plans; everyone sincerely mourns his death. But from a number of hints from the author, we understand that Lopukhov calmly went abroad and returned from there in the finale, reuniting with his comrades.

A separate semantic line is the company’s acquaintance with Rakhmetov, a man of a new formation who embodies the ideal of a revolutionary, according to Chernyshevsky (he came to Vera on the day she received a note about her husband’s suicide). It is not the hero’s actions that are revolutionary, but his very essence. The author talks about him in detail, saying that he sold his estate and led a Spartan lifestyle in order to help his people. The true meaning of the book is hidden in his image.

The main characters and their characteristics

First of all, the novel is notable for its characters, and not for its plot, which was needed to distract the attention of the censors. Chernyshevsky in his work “What to Do” draws images of strong people, the “salt of the earth,” smart, decisive, brave and honest, people on whose shoulders the frantic machine of the revolution will later rush at full speed. These are the images of Kirsanov, Lopukhov, Vera Pavlovna, who are central characters books. All of them are constant participants in the action in the work. But the image of Rakhmetov stands apart above them. In contrast with him and the trinity “Lopukhov, Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna,” the writer wanted to show the “ordinariness” of the latter. IN last chapters he brings clarity and literally spells out his intention for the reader:

“At the height at which they stand, all people should stand, can stand. Higher natures, which you and I cannot keep up with, my pathetic friends, higher natures are not like that. I showed you a slight outline of the profile of one of them: you see the wrong features.”

Rakhmetov – main character novel "What to do?" Already in the middle of the 17th year he began his transformation into a “special person”; before that he was “an ordinary, good, high school student.” Having managed to appreciate all the “charms” of a free student life, he quickly lost interest in them: he wanted something more, meaningful, and fate brought him together with Kirsanov, who helped him take the path of rebirth. He began to greedily absorb knowledge from all sorts of fields, read books voraciously, train his physical strength through menial hard work, gymnastics, and lead a Spartan lifestyle to strengthen his will: refuse luxury in clothing, sleep on felt, eat only what ordinary people can afford. For his closeness with the people, determination, and developed strength among people, he acquired the nickname “Nikitushka Lomov”, in honor of the famous barge hauler, distinguished by his physical capabilities. Among his friends, they began to call him a “rigorist” because “he accepted original principles in material, moral, and mental life,” and later “they developed into a complete system, which he strictly adhered to.” This is an extremely purposeful and fruitful person who works for the benefit of others’ happiness and limits his own, being content with little.
Vera Pavlovna- the main character of the novel “What to Do”, a beautiful dark-skinned woman with long dark hair. She felt like a stranger in her family, because her mother tried to get her married at any cost. Although she was characterized by calm, poise and thoughtfulness, in this situation she showed cunning, inflexibility and willpower. She pretended to favor the courtship, but in fact she was looking for a way out of the trap set by her mother. Under the influence of education and a good environment, she transforms and becomes much smarter, more interesting and stronger. Even her beauty blossoms, as does her soul. Now we have before us a new type of confident and intellectually developed woman who runs a business and provides for herself. This is the ideal of a lady, according to Chernyshevsky.
Lopukhov Dmitry Sergeevich- medical student, husband and liberator of Vera. He is distinguished by composure, sophisticated intelligence, cunning, and at the same time responsiveness, kindness, and sensitivity. He sacrifices his career to save a stranger, and even limits his freedom for her sake. He is prudent, pragmatic and restrained; those around him value his efficiency and education. As you can see, under the influence of love, the hero also becomes a romantic, because he again radically changes his life for the sake of a woman, staging suicide. This act reveals him to be a strong strategist who calculates everything in advance.
Alexander Matveevich Kirsanov- Vera's lover. He is a kind, intelligent, sympathetic young man, always ready to help his friends. He resists his feelings for his friend’s wife and does not allow him to destroy their relationship. For example, he stops visiting their house for a long time. The hero cannot betray Lopukhov’s trust, both of them “made their way with their breasts, without connections, without acquaintances.” The character is decisive and firm, and this masculinity does not prevent him from having delicate taste(for example, he loves opera). By the way, it was he who inspired Rakhmetov to the feat of revolutionary self-denial.

The main characters of “What is to be done” are noble, decent, and honest. There are not so many such characters in literature, there is nothing to say about life, but Chernyshevsky goes further and introduces an almost utopian character, thereby showing that decency is far from the limit of personal development, that people have become shallow in their aspirations and goals, that you can be even better, harder, stronger. Everything is learned by comparison, and by adding the image of Rakhmetov, the writer raises the level of perception for readers. This is exactly what, in his opinion, a real revolutionary looks like, capable of leading the Kirsanovs and Lopukhovs. They are strong and smart, but not mature enough for decisive independent action.

Subject

Love theme. Chernyshevsky in the novel “What to Do” reveals a favorite motif of writers in a new role. Now the extra link in the love triangle self-destructs and sacrifices its interests to the reciprocity of the remaining parties. A person in this utopia controls his feelings as much as possible, and sometimes even seems to abandon them altogether. Lopukhov ignores pride, male pride, and feelings for Vera, just to please his friends and at the same time provide them with happiness without guilt. This perception of love is too far from reality, but we accept it due to the innovation of the author, who presented a well-worn topic in such a fresh and original way.
Willpower. The hero of the novel “What Is to Be Done” curbed almost all his passions: he gave up alcohol, the company of women, and stopped wasting time on entertainment, doing only “other people’s business or no one’s business in particular.”
Indifference and responsiveness. If Vera’s mother, Marya Aleksevna, was indifferent to her daughter’s fate and thought only about the material side of the family’s life, then an outsider, Lopukhov, without any second thought sacrifices his bachelor’s peace and career for the girl. So Chernyshevsky draws a line between the old regime philistines with a petty greedy soul and representatives of the new generation, pure and unselfish in their thoughts.
Revolution theme. The need for change is expressed not only in the image of Rakhmetov, but also in the dreams of Vera Pavlovna, where in symbolic visions the meaning of existence is revealed to her: it is necessary to bring people out of the dungeon, where they are imprisoned by conventions and a tyrannical regime. The writer considers enlightenment to be the basis of the new free world; it is with this that the heroine’s happy life begins.
Theme of education. The new people in the novel What Is To Be Done are educated and smart, and they devote most of their time to learning. But their impulse does not end there: they try to help others and invest their strength in helping the people in the fight against centuries-old ignorance.

Issues

Many writers and public figures even after a while they mentioned this book. Chernyshevsky understood the spirit of that time and successfully developed these thoughts further, creating a real memo to the Russian revolutionary. The issues in the novel “What to Do” turned out to be painfully relevant and topical: the author touched upon the problem of social and gender inequality, topical political problems and even imperfections of mentality.

Women's question. The problems in the novel “What to Do” primarily concern women and their social disorder in the realities of Tsarist Russia. They have nowhere to go to work, nothing to feed themselves without a humiliating arranged marriage or even more humiliating earnings on a yellow ticket. The position of the governess is little better: no one will do anything to the owner of the house for harassment if he is a noble person. So Vera would have fallen victim to the officer’s lust if she had not been saved by progress in the person of Lopukhov. He treated the girl differently, as an equal. This attitude is the key to prosperity and independence of the weaker sex. And the point here is not about rabid feminism, but about the banal opportunity to provide for oneself and family in case the marriage did not work out or the husband died. The writer complains about the lack of rights and helplessness of women, and not about the underestimated superiority of one sex over the other.
The crisis of the monarchy. Ever since the uprising on Senate Square in 1825, ideas about the failure of the autocracy had been ripening in the minds of the Decembrists, but the people were not ready for coups of such a scale. Subsequently, the thirst for revolution only strengthened and became stronger with each new generation, which could not be said about the monarchy, which fought against this dissent as best it could, but, as you know, by 1905 it itself was shaken, and in the 17th it voluntarily gave up its positions To the Provisional Government.
Problem moral choice. Kirsanov encounters her when he realizes his feelings for his friend’s wife. Vera constantly feels it, starting with a failed “profitable marriage” and ending with her relationship with Alexander. Lopukhov also faces a choice: leave everything as it is, or do what is fair? All the heroes of the novel “What to Do” stand the test and make an impeccable decision.
The problem of poverty. It is the depressing financial situation that leads Vera’s mother to moral degradation. Marya Alekseevna cares about the “real dirt”, that is, she thinks about how to survive in a country where she is not considered anything without a title and wealth? Her thoughts are burdened not by excesses, but by worries about her daily bread. Constant need reduced her spiritual needs to a minimum, leaving neither space nor time for them.
The problem of social inequality. Vera's mother, not sparing her daughter's honor, lures officer Storeshnikov to make him her son-in-law. There is not a drop of dignity left in her, because she was born and lived in a rigid hierarchy, where those who are lower are dumb slaves for those who are higher. She would consider it a blessing if the master's son dishonored her daughter, as long as he got married after that. Such upbringing is abhorrent to Chernyshevsky, and he caustically ridicules it.

The meaning of the novel

The author created a role model for youth to show how to behave. Chernyshevsky gave Russia the image of Rakhmetov, in which most of the answers to the burning questions “what to do,” “who to be,” “what to strive for” were collected - Lenin saw this and took a number of actions that led to a successful coup, otherwise he would not have spoke so enthusiastically about the book. That is, the main idea of the novel “What is to be done” is an enthusiastic hymn to a new type of active person who can solve the problems of his people. The writer not only criticized his contemporary society, but also suggested ways to resolve the conflict situations that tore him apart. In his opinion, it was necessary to do as Rakhmetov did: abandon selfishness and class arrogance, help ordinary people not only with words, but with rubles, participate in large and global projects that could really change the situation.

A real revolutionary, according to Chernyshevsky, is obliged to live the life that a simple person lives. People in power should not be elevated to a separate elite caste, as is often the case. They are servants of the people who appointed them. This is roughly how one can express the author’s position, which he conveyed to his “special” hero and which he wants to convey to the reader through him. Rakhmetov - accumulation of all positive qualities, one might say, a “superman”, like Nietzsche. With its help, the idea of the novel “What is to be done” is expressed - bright ideals and a firm determination to defend them.

Nevertheless, Chernyshevsky warns the reader that the path of these people, “to which they are calling you,” is thorny and “poor in personal joys.” These are people trying to be reborn from a person into an abstract idea, devoid of personal feelings and passions, without which life is difficult and joyless. The writer warns against admiring such Rakhmetovs, calling them ridiculous and pathetic, because they are trying to embrace the immensity, to exchange a fate full of earthly blessings for duty and unrequited service to society. But meanwhile, the author understands that without them, life would completely lose its taste and “sour.” Rakhmetov - no romantic hero, but a very real person, whom the creator examines from different angles.

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Composition

The highest ethical law for Chernyshevsky and his favorite heroes is simple. Happiness for one is impossible if it is built on the misfortune of another. This is how the concept of rational egoism arises, of calculating benefits: we must make sure that all people are happy and free. The heroes of the novel see their personal benefit in the struggle for the happiness of the entire people. They are guided by these same noble principles when they strive to rethink the difficult situation that has arisen in their personal lives. According to Chernyshevsky, the attitude of people in love, in the family is a test, a test of their social maturity, perseverance, integrity, readiness to fight for human rights in a broader sphere. And it is quite natural that the theme of love in the novel directly leads to Vera Pavlovna’s fourth dream, where we are talking about the future triumph of communism. For Chernyshevsky, communism is not just a palace made of cast iron and glass, aluminum furniture, machines that do almost everything for a person. This and new character human relationships, and in particular the new nature of love.

According to numerous memoirs of contemporaries, it is known that the novel was greeted with extraordinary enthusiasm by progressive youth, who perceived it as “a revelation and a program.” Chernyshevsky created his novel, guided by the basic aesthetic principles that were formulated in his famous dissertation. However, we must not forget that Chernyshevsky’s aesthetic views did not remain unchanged. They were refined in the process of his literary critical activity. The experience of directly working on a work of art, in turn, forced him to reconsider or rethink some ideas, the simplicity or clarity of which he no longer felt from the position of a theorist, but from the point of view of a practitioner.

System of images in romance. Ordinary people and a special person. The innovation of Chernyshevsky as a writer was manifested primarily in the creation of images of representatives of the revolutionary-democratic camp. These include Lopukhov, Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna. These, according to the author’s description, are new people - “kind and strong, knowledgeable and able.”

Thus, for Chernyshevsky himself, “What to do?” is a novel, a full-fledged literary work associated with certain traditions in Russian and world literature (Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, George Sand, Herzen) and polemically opposed to the theory and practice of a hostile aesthetic school. And in the text of the novel itself, Chernyshevsky persistently asserts his understanding of the principles of artistry. A dispute with an insightful reader was necessary for the author to discredit aesthetic theories alien to him, for an insightful reader not only embodies the philistine worldview, but belongs to the camp of “pure aesthetics”, expresses their established concepts and ideas.

Forms and techniques of psychological analysis in the novel “What is to be done?” are also internally polemical. The author and his heroes not only act, but, above all, think according to the laws of reason. Enlightenment rationalism takes on a new character in Chernyshevsky; it becomes an aesthetic category. The most complex feelings of heroes always lend themselves to rational interpretation. They don’t have any mental anguish or painful hesitation. They have such moral health, such stability in life, such optimism, which have not yet been found in Russian literature. The clarity and rationality of the feelings experienced by the heroes of “What is to be done?” contrasts with the irrationality of the inner world of Dostoevsky’s heroes.

The appearance on the pages of Sovremennik of Chernyshevsky’s novel, which was then located in the Peter and Paul Fortress, was an event of enormous importance both in terms of socio-political and literary. The fiery word of the writer was heard throughout Russia, calling for the struggle for a future socialist society, for a new life built on the principles of reason, for truly human relationships between people, for a new revolutionary humanism.

However, in the process of work, Chernyshevsky comes to the conclusion that he has the necessary data to create a work of art - a novel, and not a memoir, a documentary narrative “from the life” of the author’s good friends. A few months after the end of What Is To Be Done? Chernyshevsky summed up his thoughts about the artistic originality of his first novel: “...When I wrote “What is to be done?”, the thought began to appear in me: it may very well be that I have some creative power. I saw that I was not portraying my friends, I was not copying, that my faces were just as fictitious as Gogol’s faces...” These considerations of Chernyshevsky are extremely important not only as a self-characterization of the character of his own novel. They also have theoretical significance, helping, in particular, to judge a certain evolution in the aesthetic views of the author. Now he realizes artistic nature of his work, pointing out the creative imagination manifested in it.

The difference between a special person and ordinary “new people” in the novel is not absolute, but relative. The heroes of the work can rise one step higher - and there is no end to this movement. This is the essence of plot development: life does not stand still, it develops, and the author’s favorite characters grow with it. A break with the old world was once fundamentally important and necessary for them. Now reality itself poses new challenges for them. The family and everyday plot naturally develops into a socio-political one. Therefore, Chernyshevsky does not end the novel with a picture of the serene happiness of the heroes. Appears new character– a lady in mourning with her tragic fate. Thus, in the plot, in the system of images, the author conveyed the concept of the laws of the historical development of Russian life in those years. The heroes go into revolution, although this portends not only joy, but also sadness, perhaps even mourning, not only victory, but also temporary defeats.

"What to do?" - a novel-sermon addressed to the masses of readers. Even in the article “Russian Man,” Chernyshevsky directly demanded: “What should I do now, let each of you say.” What to do? - this is the same one vital question, which became the title of the novel. When? Now, immediately, now. And everyone must resolve this issue, understanding their personal responsibility for everything that happens around them. These words, which Chernyshevsky wrote back in 1857, contain the grain of his novel.

The novel “What to do?” polemical in relation to many phenomena of contemporary Russian literature. It is considered established in science that it was partly conceived as a kind of response to Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons.” It can be added that Chernyshevsky consciously started from creative experience Goncharov (who, in turn, did not accept Chernyshevsky’s artistic method). Goncharov's world is predominantly static; Chernyshevsky's world, on the contrary, is dynamic. The reproduction of life in its movement and development directly follows from the main feature of the novel “What is to be done?” - the power of thought.

Chernyshevsky’s images of “new people” are presented in development. This structural originality of the work is most clearly manifested through the image of Rakhmetov, whom the author calls a special person. This is a professional revolutionary who consciously gave his life to serving the great cause of liberating the people from centuries-old oppression.

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The novel "What to do?" unique in terms of genre. There is no lyrical beginning in it. Everything is very rational. In it you can see the genres: social-utopian, political and philosophical novel.

Art, according to Chernyshevsky, should truthfully “reproduce life.” A clear confirmation of these thoughts of Chernyshevsky is given by his novel, written in full accordance with the aesthetic views of the author. All the merits of the story are given to it only by its truth, notes Chernyshevsky. The desire for “truth” determined the absence of “showiness” and “embellishment” in the novel. Its content is simple and significant, just as life is simple and significant. In an effort to strengthen the impression of “truth”, the authenticity of what is being told, Chernyshevsky introduces “human documents” into the novel: Vera Pavlovna’s diaries, letters from Lopukhov and Katya Polozova, Kryukova’s confessional story, etc.

“Poetry is in the truth of life,” said Chernyshevsky. Promoting the ideas of socialism, he was not afraid to introduce into the novel a special chapter about how Vera Pavlovna’s workshop was organized, or a letter from Katya Polozova, proving with detailed digital calculations the benefits and advantages of free collective labor. From the introduction of such chapters, the novel gained in truthfulness, and the prosaic details themselves ceased to be prosaic and, with their irresistible persuasiveness, gave the impression of a “miracle.”

"What to do?" - philosophical and journalistic novel. The novel indicated what to do, how to live, what to strive for. Therefore, it seems natural to use the author’s intervention in the lives of the characters, his discussions about women’s independence and the benefits of science. For Chernyshevsky himself, “What to do?” is a novel, a full-fledged literary work associated with certain traditions in Russian and world literature (Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, George Sand, Herzen) and polemically opposed to the theory and practice of a hostile aesthetic school. And in the text of the novel itself, Chernyshevsky persistently asserts his understanding of the principles of artistry. A dispute with an insightful reader was necessary for the author to discredit aesthetic theories alien to him, for an insightful reader not only embodies the philistine worldview, but belongs to the camp of “pure aesthetics”, expresses their established concepts and ideas.

The highest ethical law for Chernyshevsky and his favorite heroes is simple. Happiness for one is impossible if it is built on the misfortune of another. This is how the concept of rational egoism arises, of calculating benefits: we must make sure that all people are happy and free. The heroes of the novel see their personal benefit in the struggle for the happiness of the entire people. They are guided by these same noble principles when they strive to rethink the difficult situation that has arisen in their personal lives. According to Chernyshevsky, the attitude of people in love, in the family is a test, a test of their social maturity, perseverance, integrity, readiness to fight for human rights in a broader sphere. And it is quite natural that the theme of love in the novel directly leads to Vera Pavlovna’s fourth dream, where we are talking about the future triumph of communism. For Chernyshevsky, communism is not just a palace made of cast iron and glass, aluminum furniture, machines that do almost everything for a person. This is a new nature of human relationships, and in particular, a new nature of love.

Chernyshevsky's innovation as a writer was manifested primarily in the creation of images of representatives of the revolutionary democratic camp. These include Lopukhov, Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna. These, according to the author’s description, are new people - “kind and strong, knowledgeable and able.” Along with these new people, one can also distinguish higher, exceptional people (Rakhmetov is one of them).

The difference between a special person and ordinary “new people” in the novel is not absolute, but relative. The heroes of the work can rise one step higher - and there is no end to this movement. This is the essence of plot development: life does not stand still, it develops, and the author’s favorite characters grow with it. A break with the old world was once fundamentally important and necessary for them. Now reality itself poses new challenges for them. The family and everyday plot naturally develops into a socio-political one. Therefore, Chernyshevsky does not end the novel with a picture of the serene happiness of the heroes. A new character appears - a lady in mourning with her tragic fate. Thus, in the plot, in the system of images, the author conveyed the concept of the laws of the historical development of Russian life in those years. The heroes go into revolution, although this portends not only joy, but also sadness, perhaps even mourning, not only victory, but also temporary defeats.

The most important character trait of Vera Pavlovna is her deep aversion to all kinds of oppression and the desire for independence and freedom. “I only know,” she says to Julie, “that I don’t want to give in to anyone, I want to be free, I don’t want to owe anything to anyone, I want not to restrict anyone’s freedom and I want to be free myself.” She says the same thing to Lopukhov: “The main thing is independence! To do what I want, to live as I want, without asking anyone, without demanding anything from anyone, without needing anyone! This is how I want to live!”

Another characteristic feature Vera Pavlovna’s ability to take practical action, organizational talent, and the ability to overcome difficulties and adversity. Coming out of the “basement,” she begins to fight for the liberation of other women, sets up sewing workshops, and organizes the life and work of many girls in a new way. By freeing herself, she frees others.

She is characterized by a constant desire for spiritual growth and improvement, she is not satisfied with what has been done, and is alien to stagnation. Like other “new people” of Chernyshevsky, she can only be happy when she brings joy and happiness to other people. She knows that personal happiness is “impossible without the happiness of others.” Like all “new people,” Vera Pavlovna unshakably believes in the triumph of the people’s cause, in the fact that “this will certainly be so, that it cannot not happen.”

In the storylines, one can highlight the following of certain traditions: the motive of a girl’s suffering in her own family, alien to her in spirit, and a meeting with a person of high civil ideals., situation love triangle, from which a woman finds a way out.

The novel What to Do has a through-line narrative. This is a story about the formation of a young generation of builders of a new life. Therefore, stories about Dmitry Lopukhov and Alexander Kirsanov, Katya Polozova, Nastya Kryukova, Rakhmetov are naturally included in the story about the life of Vera Pavlovna. The originality of the novel genre lies in the combination of three content-structural elements in it: a description of intimate and family life, an analysis of the process of mastering a new ideology and morality, and characterization of ways to realize ideals in reality.

The unity of the novel is also given by the function of the author-narrator. It plays the role of a "brace". The narrator constantly addresses the reader in his judgments. The author-storyteller substantiates the “main requirements of artistry”, new principles of plotting “without any tricks”, opens up to the reader creative laboratory Romanitsa: in the narrator’s digressions we talk about the relationship between documentary and fictional realism in the art. The dialogue with the reader is built on the principle of gradation: starting with a question, the conversation gradually acquires a moralizing character, and the intonation of a solemn address is replaced by outright mockery.

A special role in the structure of the novel belongs to Vera Pavlovna’s dreams, which are necessary to disguise revolutionary and socialist ideas. Dreams are an interpretation of the key elements of an event plot. In the first two, Vera’s relationship with “vulgar people” is completed. The third - psychologically substantiates the second marriage, the fourth - the idea spiritual world the developed personality of Vera Pavlovna and the image of a wonderful future was created.

The important role of poetic inclusions in dreams. They perform several functions. They can be considered as a lyrical version of the main theme of the novel - the theme of liberation, sounding in the journalistic digressions of the author-narrator. Poetic inserts introduce into the novel the motif of an inspired poet singing a hymn to the sun, light and love.

In his novel, Chernyshevsky introduced the reader to different types of “new people”. He risked an artistic substantiation of the possibility of dividing new people into ordinary (Lopukhov, Kiranov, Vera, Polozova, Mertsalova) and special (Rakhmetov). Chernyshevsky almost deprived Rakhmetov of his individuality. He doesn't show special hero in the field practical activities, as it happens with ordinary people who conduct educational work among the people. The image of Rakhmetov is limited by his peculiarity: in the event of victory or destruction of the cause, he must assimilate with ordinary people. accepting their way of life.

The novel was written from the end of 1862 to April 1863, that is, written in 3.5 months in the 35th year of the author’s life. The novel divided readers into two opposing camps. Supporters of the book were Pisarev, Shchedrin, Plekhanov, Lenin. But such artists as Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Leskov believed that the novel was devoid of true artistry. To answer the question “What to do?” Chernyshevsky raises and resolves the following burning problems from a revolutionary and socialist position:

1. The socio-political problem of reorganizing society in a revolutionary way, that is, through a physical collision of two worlds. This problem is given hints in the life story of Rakhmetov and in the last, 6th chapter, “Change of scenery.” Due to censorship, Chernyshevsky was unable to expand on this problem in detail.

2. Moral and psychological. This is a question about the internal restructuring of a person who, in the process of fighting the old with the power of his mind, can cultivate new moral qualities. The author traces this process from its initial forms (the struggle against family despotism) to the preparation for a change of scenery, that is, for revolution. This problem is revealed in relation to Lopukhov and Kirsanov, in the theory of reasonable egoism, as well as in the author’s conversations with readers and characters. This problem also includes a detailed story about sewing workshops, that is, about the importance of work in people’s lives.

3. The problem of women's emancipation, as well as the norms of new family morality. This moral problem is revealed in the life story of Vera Pavlovna, in the relationships of the participants in the love triangle (Lopukhov, Vera Pavlovna, Kirsanov), as well as in the first 3 dreams of Vera Pavlovna.

4. Social-utopian. The problem of the future socialist society. It is unfolded in Vera Pavlovna’s 4th dream as a dream of a beautiful and bright life. This also includes the topic of liberation of labor, i.e., technical and machine equipment for production.

The main pathos of the book is the passionate and enthusiastic propaganda of the idea of a revolutionary transformation of the world.

The main desire of the author was the desire to convince the reader that everyone, if they work on themselves, can become a “new person”, the desire to expand the circle of like-minded people. The main task was to develop a new methodology for educating revolutionary consciousness and “honest feelings.” The novel was intended to become a textbook of life for every thinking person. The main mood of the book is the acute joyful anticipation of a revolutionary upheaval and the thirst to take part in it.

What reader is the novel addressed to?

Chernyshevsky was an educator who believed in the struggle of the masses themselves, so the novel is addressed to broad layers of the mixed-democratic intelligentsia, which became the leading force in the liberation movement in Russia in the 60s.

Artistic techniques with which the author conveys his thoughts to the reader:

1st technique: the title of each chapter is given a family-everyday character with a primary interest in love intrigue, which quite accurately conveys the plot plot, but hides the true content. For example, chapter one “The Life of Vera Pavlovna in the Family of Parents”, chapter two “First Love and Legal Marriage”, chapter three “Marriage and Second Love”, chapter four “Second Marriage”, etc. These names reek of traditionalism and imperceptibly what is truly new, namely the new nature of people's relationships.

Method 2: using plot inversion - moving 2 introductory chapters from the center to the beginning of the book. The scene of Lopukhov’s mysterious, almost detective-like disappearance distracted the censor’s attention from the true ideological orientation of the novel, i.e., from what the author’s main attention was subsequently paid to.

3rd technique: the use of numerous hints and allegories, called Aesopian speech.

Examples: “golden age”, “new order” - this is socialism; “work” is revolutionary work; a “special person” is a person of revolutionary convictions; “scene” is life; "change of scenery" - new life after the victory of the revolution; "bride" is a revolution; “bright beauty” is freedom. All these techniques are designed for the intuition and intelligence of the reader.

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