radical revolution in spiritual development society, carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, an integral part of socialist transformations. The theory of the cultural revolution was developed by V.I. Lenin. Cultural Revolution was aimed at changing social composition post-revolutionary intelligentsia and a break with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage through the ideologization of culture. The task of creating a so-called “proletarian culture” based on Marxist-class ideology, “communist education,” and mass culture came to the fore. The Cultural Revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control. As a result of the cultural revolution of the USSR, significant successes were achieved: according to the 1939 census, literacy of the population began to reach 70%; a first-class comprehensive school was created in the USSR, the number of Soviet intelligentsia reached 14 million people; there was a flourishing of science and art. IN cultural development The USSR reached the forefront in the world.
Great definition
Cultural Revolution in the USSR
The main goal of the cultural transformations carried out by the Bolsheviks in the 1920s and 1930s was the subordination of science and art to Marxist ideology.
A huge undertaking for Russia was the elimination of illiteracy (educational program). A unified state system of public education was created, soviet school several steps. In the 1st Five-Year Plan, compulsory four-year education was introduced, and in the 2nd Five-Year Plan, seven-year education was introduced. Universities and technical schools were opened, workers' faculties (faculties for preparing workers for entry into higher and secondary educational institutions) operated. The training was ideological in nature. A new, Soviet intelligentsia was formed, but the Bolshevik government treated the old intelligentsia with suspicion.
In the fall of 1922, 160 leading scientists, philosophers, historians, and economists who did not share the ideological principles of Bolshevism were expelled from Russia. The dominance of Bolshevik ideology was also asserted in anti-church propaganda, the destruction of churches, and the looting of church property. Patriarch Tikhon, elected in November 1917 by the Local Council, was arrested. Repressed were agricultural scientists N. D. Kondratiev, A. V. Chayanov, philosopher P. A. Florensky, the leading biologist N. M. Vavilov, writers O. E. Mandelstam, A. B. Babel, B. A. Pilnyak, actor and director V. E. Meyerhold and many others. Aircraft designers A. N. Tupolev, N. N. Polikarpov, physicist L. D. Landau, one of the founders of the Aerodynamic Institute S. P. Korolev and others were arrested.
At the same time, research centers were created. Geochemists V.I. Vernadsky, A.E. Fersman, physicists P.L. Kapitsa, N.N. Semenov, chemists S.V. Lebedev, A.E. Favorsky, and the creator of the theory of astronautics K. played a major role in the development of science. E. Tsiolkovsky.
In literature and art, the method “ socialist realism", glorification of the party, its leaders, the heroics of the revolution. Among the writers were A. N. Tolstoy, M. A. Sholokhov, A. A. Fadeev, A. T. Tvardovsky. The biggest events in musical life became works by S. S. Prokofiev (music for the film “Alexander Nevsky”), A. I. Khachaturian (music for the film “Masquerade”), D. D. Shostakovich (opera “Lady Macbeth” Mtsensk district", banned in 1936 for formalism). The songs of I. Dunaevsky, A. Alexandrov, V. Solovyov Sedogo gained wide popularity. Cinematography has made a significant step in its development: the films “Chapaev” by S. and G. Vasilyev, “Alexander Nevsky” by S. Eisenstein, the comedies by G. Alexandrov “Jolly Fellows”, “Circus”). The most outstanding sculptural work of the 1930s. became the monument to V. Mukhina “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”. Through various creative unions the state directed and controlled all the activities of the creative intelligentsia.
The main goal of the cultural transformations carried out by the Bolsheviks in the 1920s and 1930s was the subordination of science and art to Marxist ideology. Culture was placed under the control of the state, which sought to guide the spiritual life of society and educate its members in the spirit of the dominant ideology.
1) Enlightenment
The first People's Commissar of Education of the RSFSR was A.V. Lunacharsky (1917-1929) 1919 - decree “On the Elimination of Illiteracy”, according to which the population from 8 to 50 years old was obliged to learn to read and write - educational program
A unified state system of public education was created, and a Soviet school of several levels arose. In the 1st Five-Year Plan, compulsory four-year education was introduced, and in the 2nd Five-Year Plan, seven-year education was introduced. Universities and technical schools were opened, workers' faculties (faculties for preparing workers for entry into higher and secondary educational institutions) operated. The training was ideological in nature. A new, Soviet intelligentsia was formed, but the Bolshevik government treated the old intelligentsia with suspicion. In the first years of Soviet power, an innovative school operated: there were no desks, the abolition of the lesson system, homework, textbooks, exams, and grades.
May 1934 - decree on the structure of the educational school: the introduction of primary, junior high and secondary schools.
Intensifying educational role schools: the student is obliged to honor the leader, expose the enemies of the people, even if they are members of his family.
The policy of the Soviet leadership in the field of culture in the 20-30s. got the name cultural revolution.
Target:
Promotion cultural level people
Strengthening Marxism-Leninism as the ideological basis of social life
Results:
Elimination of illiteracy
Compulsory seven-year training
Opening of 20 thousand schools
Introduction of Marxist ideas into the education system
Repression against unwanted teachers and students.
2) Science
Attracting the old intelligentsia who did not support the Bolsheviks, but saw their duty in working for the country: N. Zhukovsky (aviator), V. Vernadsky (biochemist), N. Zelinsky (chemist), K. Tsiolkovsky (founder of astronautics), I. Pavlov ( physiologist), K. Timiryazev (botanist), I. Michurin (biologist-breeder).
Advances in natural sciences: S. Vavilov (optics), N. Vavilov (genetics and selection), S. Lebedev (production of synthetic rubber), I. Kurchatov (research of the atomic nucleus), P. Kapitsa (physics of low temperatures and strong magnetic fields ), P. Florensky (mathematics), A. Chizhevsky (historiometry, heliobiology).
In the 30s Stalin declared that all sciences are political in nature. Persecution of genetics, sociology, and psychoanalysis began, which led to the curtailment of their developments in the USSR. History began to be used to educate the people, developing the ideas of Soviet patriotism.
In the fall of 1922, 160 leading scientists, philosophers, historians, and economists who did not share the ideological principles of Bolshevism were expelled from Russia. The dominance of Bolshevik ideology was also asserted in anti-church propaganda, the destruction of churches, and the looting of church property. Patriarch Tikhon, elected in November 1917 by the Local Council, was arrested. Repressed were agricultural scientists N.D. Kondratyev, A.V. Chayanov, philosopher P.A. Florensky, the leading biologist-geneticist N.M. Vavilov, writers O.E. Mandelstam, A.B. Babel, B.A. Pilnyak, actor and director V. E. Meyerhold and many others. Aircraft designers A. N. Tupolev, N. N. Polikarpov, physicist L. D. Landau, one of the founders of the aerodynamic institute S. P. Korolev and others were arrested. The latter worked in the so-called. "Sharashkah" (design bureaus and laboratories in places of detention).
The main reference point in socio-political research was the book published in 1938. A short course on the history of the CPSU(b))" edited by I.V. Stalin.
3) Literature
Some cultural figures ended up in exile: I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, K. Balmont (among non-literators: M. Chagall, I. Repin, S. Prokofiev, S. Rachmaninov, F. Chaliapin, etc.)
A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Prishvin, N. Gumilyov remained in their homeland.
In literature and art, the method “ socialist realism"(a depiction of reality not as it is, but as it should be from the point of view of the interests of the struggle for socialism), glorification of the party, its leaders, the heroics of the revolution. Among the writers, A. N. Tolstoy (“Peter the Great”) and A. T. Tvardovsky stood out.
The genre of satire is developing (I. Ilf and E. Petrov “The Golden Calf”, “12 Chairs”), novels and stories about the revolution and the Civil War appear (M. A. Sholokhov (“ Quiet Don"), A. A. Fadeev (Destruction), M. Zoshchenko, D. Furmanov ("Chapaev"), I. Babel ("Cavalry"), K. Trenev ("Lubov Yarovaya").
Creative associations of the 20s: Proletkult (advocated the creation of a special proletarian culture, perceived the heritage of the past as unnecessary trash), RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), MAPP (Moscow Association of Proletarian Writers)
1932 - creation Writers' Union.
4) Painting
Creation Association of Artists of the Revolution (AHR), developed the tradition of the Itinerants.
The theme of revolution and Civil War developed by A. Deineka, M. Grekov, B. Ioganson
The work was continued by K. Petrov-Vodkin, B. Kustodiev, P. Filonov, K. Malevich, M. Nesterov, P. Konchalovsky and others.
K. Petrov-Vodkin (“Bathing the Red Horse”, “1918 in Petrograd”, “Death of a Commissar”)
K. Yuon (“New Planet”)
Yu. Pimenov (“Give us heavy industry!”)
M. Grekov (“Tachanka”)
5) Music
The largest phenomena in musical life were the works of S. S. Prokofiev (music for the film “Alexander Nevsky”), A. I. Khachaturian (music for the film “Masquerade”), D. D. Shostakovich (opera “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk”, banned in 1936). The songs of I. Dunaevsky, A. Alexandrov, V. Solovyov-Sedoy gained wide popularity.
6) Cinematography.
Cinematography has made a significant step in its development: the films “Chapaev” by S. and G. Vasilyev, “Battleship Potemkin”, “Alexander Nevsky”, “Ivan the Terrible” by S. Eisenstein, the comedies by G. Alexandrov “Jolly Fellows”, “Circus” , film by M. Romm “Lenin in October”, “Lenin in 1918”, I. Pyryev “Pig Farm and Shepherd”.
Dozens of actors are becoming famous (among them M. Zharov, M. Ladynina, L. Orlova, N. Kryuchkov, V. Zeldin, N. Cherkasov)
7) Sculpture.
The most outstanding sculptural work of the 1930s. became the monument to V. Mukhina “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”.
N. Andreev - Obelisk of the Soviet Constitution in Moscow
L. Sherwood - Monument to A. Radishchev
S. Merkurov - monuments to K. Timiryazev and F. Dostoevsky
8) Architecture
Search for new forms and styles: constructivism (strict, logical lines of buildings in which the structure feels)
In Leningrad - A. Gegelo (Gorky Palace of Culture, Big house(NKVD building).
In Moscow - the Vesnin brothers (Palace of Labor project, Likhachev Palace of Culture, building of the Leningradskaya Pravda newspaper), S. Melnikov (Rusakov House of Culture), Alabyan and Simbirtsev (Red Army Theater, resembles a five-pointed star from above)
B. Iofan - residential building on the Embankment (there is a novel of the same name by Yu. Trifonov about Stalin’s repressions)
9) Bolsheviks and the Church
In the 20s the confiscation of church valuables and terror against clergy begins.
To promote atheism, the “Union of Atheists” was created.
Cultural Policy in the 1920s and 1930s.
General:
Recognition of the elimination of illiteracy, the development of schools and education, the formation of a new Soviet intelligentsia as the most important political tasks (the concept of the cultural revolution)
Recognition of culture and art as an important means of educating the masses in the Communist spirit (culture as part of the overall party cause)
The desire of the party and the Soviet state to place culture under strict control
Bringing to the fore the principle of partisanship when evaluating works of art and culture.
| 1920s | 1930s |
| - In school education there is scope for experimentation and innovation (non-evaluative learning, team method, etc.) - The opportunity to develop various artistic styles and directions in art - The existence of various creative organizations and associations - State support for proletarian art, organizations built on its principles, separation from them of so-called sympathizers, fellow travelers, etc. | - In school education - restoration of traditional forms of education, condemnation of experiments as an excess. - Approval of socialist realism as the only official artistic method in art - Creation of unified creative organizations - Creation of unified creative organizations, which accepted all art workers who shared the platform of Soviet power |
Cultural life in the USSR in the 1920-1930s.
In the culture of the 1920-1930s. Three directions can be distinguished:
1. Official culture, supported by the Soviet state.
2. Unofficial culture persecuted by the Bolsheviks.
3. Culture of Russian abroad (emigrant).
Cultural Revolution - changes in the spiritual life of society carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, the creation of socialist culture. The term “cultural revolution” was introduced by V.I. Lenin in 1923 in his work “On Cooperation”.
Goals of the Cultural Revolution:
1. Re-education of the masses - the establishment of Marxist-Leninist, communist ideology as a state ideology.
2. Creation of a “proletarian culture” focused on the lower strata of society, based on communist education.
3. “Communization” and “Sovietization” mass consciousness through the Bolshevik ideologization of culture.
4. Elimination of illiteracy, development of education, dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge.
5. Break with the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage.
6. Creation and education of a new Soviet intelligentsia.
The beginning of the eradication of illiteracy. Having come to power, the Bolsheviks were faced with the problem of the low cultural level of the population. The 1920 census showed that 50 million people in the country were illiterate (75% of the population). In 1919, a decree of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted “ On the elimination of illiteracy" In 1923, the company “ Down with illiteracy"led by the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee M.I. Kalinin. Thousands of reading huts opened, where adults and children studied. According to the 1926 census, the literacy rate of the population was 51%. New clubs, libraries, museums, and theaters opened.
Science. The authorities sought to use the technical intelligentsia to strengthen the economic potential of the Soviet state. Under the leadership of an academician THEM. Gubkina the study of the Kursk magnetic anomaly and oil exploration between the Volga and the Urals were carried out. Academician A.E. Fersman Conducted geological surveys in the Urals and the Far East. Discoveries in the field of space exploration theory and rocket technology were made by K.E. Tsiolkovsky And F. Tsán-der. S.V. Lebedev developed a method for producing synthetic rubber. The theory of aviation was studied by the founder of aircraft construction NOT. Zhu-kovsky. In 1929, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after. V.I. Lenin (VASKhNIL, president - N.I. Vavilov).
The attitude of the authorities towards the humanitarian intelligentsia. The authorities limited the ability of the humanitarian intelligentsia to participate in political life, influence public consciousness. In 1921, the autonomy of higher educational institutions was abolished. Professors and teachers who did not share communist beliefs were fired.
In 1921, an employee of the GPU I'M WITH. Agranov fabricated the case about the “Petrograd Combat Organization”. Its participants included a group of scientists and cultural figures, including Professor V.N. Tagantsev and poet N.S. Gumilyov. 61 people were shot, including Gumilev.
In 1922, a special censorship committee was created - Glavlit, who exercised control over “hostile attacks” against the policies of the ruling party. Then created Glavrepet-com- committee for control of theater repertoires.
IN 1922 on the initiative of V.I. Lenin and L.D. Trotsky, on two “philosophical ships”, over 160 opposition-minded prominent scientists and cultural figures - philosophers - were expelled from the country N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.O. Lossky, S.L. Frank, I.A. Ilyin, L.P. Karsavin etc. Was expelled P.A. So-rokin(he studied in the Ivanovo region, - later - the largest sociologist in the USA).
In 1923, under the leadership N. K. Krupskaya Libraries were cleansed of “anti-Soviet and anti-fiction books.” They even included the works of the ancient philosopher Plato and L.N. Tolstoy. K ser. 1920s Private book publishing houses and magazines were closed.
Graduate School. Preparation of the new intelligentsia. The CPSU(b) set a course for the formation of a new intelligentsia, unconditionally devoted to the given regime. “We need the intelligentsia to be ideologically trained,” stated N.I. Bukharin. “And we will churn out the intelligentsia, produce it, like in a factory.” In 1918, entrance exams to universities and tuition fees were abolished. New institutes and universities opened (by 1927 - 148, in pre-revolutionary times - 95). For example, in 1918, a polytechnic institute was opened in Ivanovo-Vozne-sensk. Since 1919, working faculties were created in universities ( slave-fucks) to prepare for training in higher school worker and peasant youth who did not have a secondary education. By 1925, graduates of workers' faculties made up half of the students. For people from the bourgeois-noble and intelligentsia “socially alien” strata, access to higher education was difficult.
School system 1920s The three-tier structure of medium-sized educational institutions(classical gymnasium - real school - commercial school) and was replaced by a “polytechnic and labor” secondary school. School subjects such as logic, theology, Latin and Greek languages and other humanitarian subjects.
The school became unified and accessible to all. It consisted of 2 stages (1st stage - four years, 2nd - five years). Factory apprenticeship schools (FZU) and working youth schools (WYS) were engaged in training workers, and administrative and technical personnel were trained in technical schools. School programs were oriented towards communist education. Instead of history, social studies was taught.
State and church in the 1920s. In 1917 the patriarchate was restored. In 1921-1922 Under the pretext of fighting hunger, the Bolsheviks began to confiscate church values. In the city of Shuya, parishioners who tried to prevent the seizure of church valuables were shot. As part of the policy of “militant atheism,” churches were closed and icons were burned. In 1922, trials were organized in Moscow and Petrograd against church ministers, some of them were sentenced to death penalty on charges of counter-revolutionary activities.
A struggle arose between the “old church members” (patriarch Tikhon) and “renovationists” (Metropolitan A.I. Vvedensky). Patriarch Tikhon was arrested and soon died, the patriarchate was abolished. In 1925, the Metropolitan became locum tenens of the patriarchal throne Peter, but in December 1925 he was arrested and deported. His successor, Metropolitan Sergius and 8 bishops in 1927 signed an appeal in which they obliged priests who did not recognize Soviet power to withdraw from church affairs. The metropolitan spoke out against this Joseph. Many priests were exiled to Solovki. Representatives of other religions were also persecuted.
Literature and art in the 1920s. Writers and poets continued to publish their works “ silver age» ( A.A. Akh-ma-tova, A. Bely, V.Ya. Bryusov etc.) Directors worked in theaters E.B. Vakh-tangov, K.S. Stanislavsky, V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, actress M.N. Ermolova. Exhibitions were organized by followers of the “World of Art”, “Jack of Diamonds”, “Blue Rose” and other associations of artists ( P.P. Konchalovsky, A.V. Lentulov, R.R. Falk etc. . ). The revolution gave new impetus to creativity V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Blok, S.A. Yesenina. Representatives of left-modernist movements - futurism, cubism, constructivism - showed great activity in painting, theater, architecture ( V.E. Meyerhold, V.E. Tatlin etc.).
Many new literary groups and organizations are emerging:
Group " Serapion brothers» ( M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, K. A. Fedin etc.) was looking for new artistic forms of reflecting the post-revolutionary life of the country;
Group " Pass» ( MM. Prishvin, V.P. Kataev etc.) advocated for the preservation of the continuity and traditions of Russian literature.
Literary and artistic associations of proletarian-Bolshevik communist orientation arose:
- Proletkult(1917-1932) - formed a new proletarian socialist culture ( A.A. Bogdanov, P.I. Lebedev-Polyansky, Demyan Bedny);
Literary group " Forge"(1920-1931), joined RAPP;
- Russian Association of Proletarian Writers(RAPP), (1925-1932) using the slogan “partisanship of literature” fought with other groups. Published a magazine "On duty";
LEF Group " Left Arts Front"(1922-1929) - poets V.V. Mayakovsky, N.N. Aseev and others created taking into account the requirements of Proletkult, published the magazine “LEF”.
These groups harassed non-party cultural figures, calling them “internal emigrants” for avoiding singing the “heroics of revolutionary achievements.” “Fellow travelers” were also criticized - writers who supported Soviet power, but allowed “co-lebania” ( MM. Zoshchenko, A.N. Tolstoy, V.A. Kaverin, E.G. Bagritsky, M.M. Prishvin etc.).
During the years of the first and second five-year plans, a cultural revolution was carried out in the USSR. The most important task cultural construction during the first five-year plan consisted of eliminating illiteracy. In 1926, in the USSR, among the population aged 9 years and older, only 51.1% were literate, and among individual nationalities, literates made up a small proportion: Kazakhs - 9.1%, Yakuts - 7.2, Kyrgyz - 5, 8, Tajiks - 3, Turkmens - 2.7%.
At the call of the Communist Party, a mass movement for the elimination of illiteracy began throughout the country with renewed vigor under the slogan “Literate, educate the illiterate!” Hundreds of thousands of people were involved in this movement. Total number In 1930, there were about 1 million people throughout the country who took part in the eradication of illiteracy. In 1930 - 1932 Over 30 million people were covered by various literacy schools.
In order to put an end to illiteracy once and for all, it was necessary to stop the flow of illiterates from among the younger generation by introducing universal compulsory education in the country.
Universal compulsory education had enormous economic and political significance. V.I. Lenin pointed out that an illiterate person is outside politics, he cannot master technology and consciously take part in the construction of a socialist society.
According to the decisions of the party and government, the general free training in the amount of 4-year primary school(for children 8, 9, 10 and 11 years old) began to be implemented in 1930/31 academic year. In industrial cities, factory districts and workers' settlements, from 1930/31, compulsory 7-year education was introduced for children who graduated from 4-year school. By the end of the first five-year plan, universal compulsory education had basically been implemented throughout the entire territory of the USSR.
During the first two five-year plans, grandiose school construction began throughout the country. In 1929 - 1932 13 thousand new schools were built for 3.8 million student places, and in 1933 - 1937. - 18778 schools.
Introduction of universal primary education and the large scale of school construction made it possible to increase the number of students in primary and secondary schools in 1937 to 29.6 million people (and in 1914 - 8 million people). Tremendous strides have been made in the development school education in the union republics. For example, the number of students in the Tajik SSR by 1938 had increased by 682 times compared to 1914. Hundreds of new pedagogical institutes and technical schools were created in the RSFSR and other republics. The growth of the network of higher and secondary educational institutions made it possible to train over 400 thousand specialists with higher and secondary education during the first five-year plan, and about 1 million people during the second five-year plan.
Soviet science achieved significant success during the years of the first and second five-year plans. The tasks of economic construction set in the five-year plans required scientists to establish the closest connection with production, with the practice of socialist construction. The works of I.P. Pavlov, I.V. Michurin, A.E. Fersman, N.D. Zelinsky, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, A.P. Karpinsky, V.A. Obruchev and others received global recognition and fame. During the period of the first two five-year plans, the Academy of Sciences of the Byelorussian SSR, as well as branches of the USSR Academy of Sciences in the Urals, were created and began to operate. Far East, in the Azerbaijani, Armenian, Georgian, Kazakh, Tajik, Turkmen and Uzbek union republics.
A new intelligentsia arose in the Soviet country, emerging from among the workers and peasants, closely connected with the people, infinitely devoted and faithfully serving them. She provided enormous assistance to the Communist Party and the government in building a socialist society. As for the old specialists, the absolute majority of them finally went over to the side of Soviet power.
Civil War 1917-1922 and foreign intervention in Russia
Reasons for the revolution:
· dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks;
· the desire of the Bolsheviks who received power to retain it by any means;
· the willingness of all participants to use violence as a way to resolve the conflict;
· signing of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty with Germany in March 1918;
· the Bolsheviks' solution to the most acute agrarian question contrary to the interests of large landowners;
· nationalization of real estate, banks, means of production;
· the activities of food detachments in villages, which led to aggravation of relations between the new government and the peasantry.
Intervention - Aggressive intervention by one or more states, advantage armed, for internal affairs of some kind. countries.
Scientists distinguish 3 stages of the civil war. The first stage lasted from October 1917 to November 1918. This was the time when the Bolsheviks came to power. Since October 1917, isolated armed clashes gradually turned into full-scale military operations. It is characteristic that beginning of the civil war 1917 – 1922, unfolded in the background larger military conflict - First world y. This was the main reason for the subsequent intervention of the Entente. It should be noted that each of the Entente countries had its own reasons for participating in the intervention(). Thus, Turkey wanted to establish itself in Transcaucasia, France wanted to extend its influence to the north of the Black Sea region, Germany wanted to establish itself in the Kola Peninsula, Japan was interested in Siberian territories. The goal of England and the United States was both to expand their own spheres of influence and to prevent the strengthening of Germany.
The second stage dates from November 1918 – March 1920. It was at this time that the decisive events of the civil war took place. Due to the cessation of hostilities on the fronts of the First World War and the defeat of Germany, military operations on Russian territory gradually lost intensity. But, at the same time, a turning point came in favor of the Bolsheviks, who controlled most of the country’s territory.
The final stage in the chronology of the Civil War lasted from March 1920 to October 1922. Military operations of this period were carried out mainly on the outskirts of Russia ( Soviet-Polish War, military clashes in the Far East). It is worth noting that there are other, more detailed, options for periodizing the civil war.
The end of the civil war was marked by the victory of the Bolsheviks. Historians call its most important reason the broad support of the masses. The development of the situation was also seriously influenced by the fact that, weakened by the First World War, the Entente countries were unable to coordinate their actions and strike at the territory of the former Russian Empire with all our might.
War communism
War communism (policy of war communism) – name domestic policy Soviet Russia, carried out during the Civil War of 1918-1921.
The essence of war communism was to prepare the country for a new, communist society, which the new authorities were oriented towards. War communism was characterized by the following features:
· extreme degree of centralization of management of the entire economy;
· nationalization of industry (from small to large);
· ban on private trade and curtailment of commodity-money relations;
· state monopolization of many industries agriculture;
· militarization of labor (orientation towards the military industry);
· total equalization, when everyone received an equal amount of benefits and goods.
It was on the basis of these principles that it was planned to build a new state, where there are no rich and poor, where everyone is equal and everyone receives exactly what is necessary for a normal life.
Question 41. Political development of the USSR in 1920-1930.
In the period from 1928 to 1937. A totalitarian state was finally formed in the USSR.
Market mechanisms were laid down by state regulation, and a regime of total control exercised by the party-state apparatus was established in all spheres of social life.
Other signs of a totalitarian system were also observed:
1) mono-party system;
2) absence of opposition;
3) merging of the state and party apparatus;
4) the actual elimination of the separation of powers;
5) destruction of political and civil freedoms;
6) unification public life;
7) cult of the country's leader;
8) control over society with the help of all-encompassing mass public organizations.
At the top of the political pyramid was general secretary VKP(b) I.V. Stalin.
By the beginning of the 1930s. he managed to win in internal party struggle for the power that developed after the death of V.I. Lenin between the leading party leaders (L.D. Trotsky, L.B. Kamenev, G.E. Zinoviev, N.I. Bukharin). and established a regime of personal dictatorship in the USSR. The main structures of this political system, were:
1) party;
2) management of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks;
3) Politburo;
4) organs state security, operating under the direct leadership of I.V. Stalin.
Mass repressions as one of the main instruments of the regime pursued several goals:
1) eliminating opponents of Stalin’s methods of building socialism;
2) destruction of the free-thinking part of the nation;
3) keeping the party and state machinery in constant tension.
Strictly regulating not only the behavior, but also the thinking of each of its members, ideologized official organizations were called upon to educate a person from childhood in the spirit of the norms of communist morality.
In fact, each of them was just one or another modification of the state ideology for different social groups. Thus, the most privileged and honorable was membership in the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (about 2 million people) and the Soviets (about 3.6 million deputies and activists). For young people there was the Komsomol (Komsomol) and the Pioneer organization. For workers and employees there were trade unions, and for the intelligentsia there were unions depending on the type of activity.
Logical continuation The political course of the party was the adoption on December 5, 1936 at the VIII All-Union Extraordinary Congress of Soviets of the new Constitution of the USSR. It established the creation of two forms of ownership:
1) state;
2) collective farm-cooperative.
System state power has also undergone changes:
1) supreme body the Supreme Council of the USSR remained;
2) during the breaks between its sessions, the Presidium of the Supreme Council had power.
Question 42. “Cultural revolution” in the USSR (1920-30s)
In the culture of the 1920s–1930s. Three directions can be distinguished:
1. Official culture supported by the Soviet state.
2. Unofficial culture persecuted by the Bolsheviks.
3. Culture of Russian abroad (emigrant).
Cultural Revolution – changes in the spiritual life of society carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, the creation of socialist culture. The term “cultural revolution” was introduced by V.I. Lenin in 1923 in his work “On Cooperation”.
Goals of the Cultural Revolution.
1. Re-education of the masses - the establishment of Marxist-Leninist, communist ideology as a state ideology.
2. Creation of a “proletarian culture” focused on the lower strata of society, based on communist education.
3. “Communization” and “Sovietization” of mass consciousness through the Bolshevik ideologization of culture.
4. Elimination of illiteracy, development of education, dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge.
5. Break with the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage.
6. Creation and education of a new Soviet intelligentsia.
The main goal of the cultural transformations carried out by the Bolsheviks in the 1920s and 1930s was the subordination of science and art to Marxist ideology.
A big deal for Russia was the elimination of illiteracy (educational education). Results of the cultural revolution in the USSR
The successes of the Cultural Revolution include an increase in the literacy rate to 87.4% of the population (according to the 1939 census), the creation of a broad system secondary schools, significant development science and art.