The main purpose of the works of ancient Russian literature. Features of Old Russian literature. Questions and tasks

09.04.2019

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. Moreover, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, book writers, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author’s texts have not reached us, but later lists of them have been preserved. Often, scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the work being copied, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of ancient Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing various editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textual criticism and paleography (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of writing material) can come to the rescue.

Feature ancient Russian literature - historicism. Its heroes are predominantly historical figures; it allows almost no fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about “miracles” - phenomena that seemed supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the invention of an ancient Russian writer, but rather accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the people themselves with whom the “miracle” happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state and the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in man's ability to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, “listening to good and evil indifferently.” Any genre ancient literature, whether it is a historical story or a legend, a life or a church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Touching primarily on state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of words, in the power of persuasion. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to ensure that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

Literature Ancient Rus' expressed and defended the interests of the top of feudal society. However, it could not help but show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings or in the forms of typically medieval religious heresies. The literature vividly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groups within the ruling class, each of which sought support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected national interests, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the nationality of ancient Russian literature.

In the 11th – first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, the words in the line were not separated and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with red initial letters. Frequently used, well-known words were written abbreviated under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. Handwriting with regular, almost square letters was called charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

Problem artistic method:

The artistic method of ancient Russian literature is inextricably linked with the nature of the worldview, the worldview of medieval man, which absorbed religious speculative ideas about the world and associated with labor practice concrete vision of reality. In the minds of medieval man, the world existed in two dimensions: real, earthly and heavenly, spiritual. The Christian religion insisted that human life on earth is temporary. The purpose of earthly life is preparation for eternal, incorruptible life. These preparations should consist of moral improvement of the soul, curbing sinful passions, etc.

Two aspects of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature are associated with the dual nature of the worldview of medieval man:

1) reproduction of individual facts in all their specificity, purely empirical statements;

2) consistent transformation of life, that is, idealization of facts real life, an image not of what exists, but of what should be.

The first side of the artistic method is associated with the historicism of Old Russian literature in its medieval understanding, and with the second - its symbolism.

The Old Russian writer was convinced that symbols are hidden in nature, in man himself. He believed that historical events also performed symbolic meaning, because he believed that history moves and is directed by the will of the deity. The writer considered symbols as the main means of revealing the truth, discovering the inner meaning of a phenomenon. Just as the phenomena of the surrounding world are polysemantic, so is the word. This is where the symbolic nature of metaphors and comparisons in ancient Russian literature stems.

An Old Russian writer, trying to convey an image of truth, strictly follows a fact that he himself witnessed or about which he learned from the words of an eyewitness, a participant in the event. He does not doubt the truth of miracles, supernatural phenomena, he believes in their reality.

As a rule, the heroes of works of ancient Russian literature are historical figures. Only in some cases do representatives of the people turn out to be heroes.

Medieval literature is still alien to any individualization of human character. Old Russian writers create generalized typological images of an ideal ruler, a warrior, on the one hand, and an ideal ascetic, on the other. These images are sharply contrasted with the generalized typological image of the evil ruler and collective image demon-devil, personifying evil.

In the view of the ancient Russian writer, life is a constant arena of the struggle between good and evil.

The source of goodness, good thoughts and actions is God. The devil and demons push people to evil. However, Old Russian literature does not relieve responsibility from the person himself. Everyone is free to choose their own path.

In the consciousness of the ancient Russian writer, the categories of ethical and aesthetic merged. Good is always beautiful. Evil is associated with darkness.

The writer builds his works on the contrast of good and evil. He brings the reader to the idea that high moral qualities of a person are the result of hard moral work.

The behavior and actions of the heroes are determined by their social status, their belonging to the princely, boyar, druzhina, and church classes.

Strict adherence to the rhythm and order established by the ancestors forms the vital basis of etiquette and ceremoniality of ancient Russian literature. So the chronicler, first of all, sought to put the numbers in a row, that is, to arrange the material he selected in chronological sequence.

The works of ancient Russian literature were didactic and moralizing in nature. They were called upon to help get rid of vices.

So, medieval historicism, symbolism, ritualism and didacticism are the leading principles artistic image in works of ancient Russian literature. IN various works, depending on the genre and time of their creation, these features manifested themselves differently.

Historical development Old Russian literature proceeded through the gradual destruction of the integrity of its method, liberation from Christian symbolism, ritualism and didacticism.

Old Russian literature, like any medieval literature, has a number of features that distinguish it from the literature of modern times. A characteristic feature of literature of the medieval type is a broad interpretation of the concept of “literature” as a written word with the obligatory inclusion of functional genres that usually perform religious, ritual or business functions. It is worth paying attention to the fact that in the Middle Ages the basis of the genre system was precisely functional genres that had special extra-literary functions. On the contrary, genres with weakened functionality are on the periphery of this system. In the transition period from the Middle Ages to the culture of modern times, a reverse process occurs: genres with weakened functionality move to the center of the system, and functional genres are pushed to the periphery.

Thus, DRL is a complex conglomerate of artistic and business monuments (1). This feature was due to its close connection with history, the Christian religion and writing in general.

Handwritten nature of the existence of DRL works (2) fundamentally distinguishes it from the literature of modern times. A work, as a rule, appeared not in one, but in several lists. The scribe sometimes simply copied the manuscript, creating a new list, but often changed its ideological orientation in accordance with the requirements of the time, shortened or expanded the text, and changed the style of the monument. In this case we are talking about a new editorial staff works. The author's list of text is called autograph. In the process of processing a work, its editorial staff. Since the work in the DRL existed for several centuries and in different regions, there could be several editions. The list, which turns out to be the basis for processing, is called protographer. It may not always be the author's version. Researchers of movement and text development in DRL – textualists and paleographers– consider the types of handwriting of scribes, features of spelling, grammar, identify individual linguistic differences and, on the basis of this, draw up a hypothetical scheme for the development and distribution of editions of the monument. Textual criticism and paleography- These are auxiliary disciplines that help in the study of handwritten texts. Textual criticism studies the text itself, while paleography examines the material on which and with the help of which a handwritten monument was created.

Anonymity (3) most of DRL's works - her other distinctive feature, associated with the Christian concept of human personality, according to which pride was considered one of the greatest sins, and humility was the height of virtue. Due to this individual characteristics The personality of the writer in medieval literature did not receive such a vivid manifestation as in the literature of modern times. However, anonymity should not be confused with impersonality. It has long been proven that individual authorship existed in DRL, but the forms of its expression were different than in the literature we are accustomed to. The attitude towards copyright in DRL was completely different. Anonymity allowed authors to use parts of “other people’s” texts to compose their own. Exceptions were made only for authoritative works - texts of Holy Scripture and Tradition, writings of the church fathers, state documents. References were necessarily made to the names of their creators. However, authoritative church texts were recognizable due to their wide popularity.

Medieval historicism (4). DRL began as literature devoid of fiction. The scribe strictly followed the facts, connecting his work with a specific historical event or person. Even when we are talking about supernatural phenomena, about persons and events that, from our point of view, did not exist or were impossible in reality, all the same, both the compiler of the work and the reader in Ancient Rus' perceived everything written as something that actually happened. And this attitude towards the written text remained very long time. Perhaps only in the 17th century this tradition was destroyed.

The principle of historicism is associated with providentialism (5), that is, the idea of predestination. Thus, any hero of hagiographic literature, even in childhood, shows a tendency towards a holy life. If he begins his life sinfully, then his belief, a change in the quality of his spiritual state is inevitable, predetermined from above. The suffering of the Russian people “for our sins” is also predetermined in the stories about the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

The peculiarities of the worldview of medieval man determined the authoritarian thinking of the ancient Russian scribe and authoritarianism (6) as a feature of the artistic method of DRL. A reference to historical, literary or political authority is very important for an Old Russian person (this has already been mentioned above). Often new works were signed with the names of church fathers and hierarchs of past years just to give them greater weight. The reader who first becomes acquainted with the monuments of the DRL draws attention to the abundance of direct quotes and indirect references to the texts of the New and Old Testaments, numerous references to the works of authoritative church writers. In these quotes, the author seemed to consolidate his moral, didactic, political and aesthetic assessment of a fact, event, person, and asserted its universal significance and universal acceptance.

Closely related to authoritarian thinking principle of retrospective historical analogy (7) , which is the most important means of the author’s assessment of a particular historical event. Here is what V.V. writes about this. Kuskov: “A retrospective historical analogy allows us to more deeply reveal the significance of a particular historical event, assess the behavior of its participants, glorify them or condemn them, establish a unique typological commonality between the events of Ancient Rus' and the events of world history and thereby indicate their certain pattern.” Using the material from the monuments of the Kulikovo cycle, the researcher shows how an unbroken chain of victories won by the Russian princes Yaroslav the Wise, Alexander Nevsky, and Dmitry Donskoy is established. “Traditional reception,” continues V.V. Kuskov, - a retrospective historical analogy with biblical characters in “The Tale of the Battle of Mama” emphasizes the significance of the victory won on the Kulikovo field. It is equated to the victory of Gideon over Midian, Moses over Amalek and Pharaoh, David over Goliath. The troops of the Moscow prince are similar to the army of Alexander the Great, the courage of the Russian soldiers is similar to Gideon’s allies. AND heavenly powers They help Dmitry just as they once helped Tsar Constantine in his fight against the wicked. The regiments of Dmitry Volynets are like the youths of David, “those who had hearts, like the lvovs, like the luthiers, came to the flock of sheep.” In his prayers, Dmitry asks God to help him in the same way as Hezekiah - to tame the heart of the ferocious beast Mamai.”

Authority also dominated in the area artistic form. DRL can be called exemplary literature, literature of sustainable etiquette. Traditional (8) covers not only the content of works, but also their form: principles of depicting a person, plot, composition, language. The traditionalism of medieval literature cannot be perceived as the result of the “childish spontaneity”, inability or “ineptitude” of the scribe. This is a phenomenon of the era, an urgent need of the time, a fact moral consciousness a person without whom he could not explain the world and navigate it.

The authoritarianism of the DRL reflects the estate-corporate principle of the existence of ancient Russian people. A clear awareness of the impossibility of breaking the estate-corporate principle leaves its mark on literature. If you are a prince, then you are obliged to be one and behave in accordance with the idea of worthy princely behavior. “Just as a cauldron cannot be freed from blackness and burning, so a slave cannot be freed from servitude” (“Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik). Human behavior in medieval society is determined by rank. Likhachev called this feature of life etiquette. But it is more accurate to use the terms decorum and orderliness. Even the clothing of a medieval person is a sign of rank. Decency is order. Disorder, disorder - disorder. A person must take his place in general series. Order and rowness become indicators of the structure of the world. In the 17th-century work “The Officer of the Falconer’s Way,” created not without the participation of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the credo of human behavior and order is clearly formulated. Old Russian "rank" as literary concept corresponds to some extent modern concept“rhythm”, for it is precisely the measured adherence to order and decorum that creates the vital basis for the ceremonial nature of Russian literature.

Traditionality becomes a type of medieval creativity, the most important factor intellectual mastery of reality. It rests on the deep conviction that there is only one correct worldview in the world - Christian ideology. Traditionalism of ideological and artistic thinking, reflecting medieval ideas about the new as heretical, did not allow a different approach to assessing the phenomenon, regarding any other point of view as coming from the devil.

An ancient Russian writer creates within a certain tradition. True Value He sees medieval art as strictly following a model. The highest example and the highest truth is, of course, the authority of Holy Scripture.

D.S. Likhachev introduced the concept literary etiquette (9) , by which we will understand the system of canonical literary techniques - compositional, systems of images, language, stylistic clichés, etc., necessary to create works of certain genres, images of certain characters.

An essential feature of DRL is its direct and more stable connection with ideology (10) . A.N. Robinson explains this by saying that in the Middle Ages “artistic literary creativity developed not independently (as a special form of ideology), but as if “within” or as part of various practically purposeful genres of writing (for example, in chronicle writing, and in solemn sermons, and in hagiography, etc.) ... Similar the combined and practically purposeful functions of literature delayed the identification of the actual artistic creativity from writing and determined a more direct (than in modern literature) dependence of aesthetics on ideology as a whole.” It follows from this that didacticism DRL. The author always set practical and didactic goals for his work, for medieval literature is utilitarian, it is created for the benefit of the soul. Even history is always an edifying lesson.

The process of creating a literary work in Ancient Rus' was closely connected with the process of cognition, which in turn was determined by the peculiarities of the worldview of medieval man. The worldview of the ancient Russian scribe is characterized by binary, the opposition of the real to the unreal, the temporary to the eternal. These features of the vision of the world affected the theory of knowledge: surrounding reality, the scribe comprehends everyday things with “bodily eyes.” The secrets of the ideal world are revealed to man through spiritual insight, divine revelation, therefore knowledge of the heavenly is possible only with “spiritual eyes.”

From the point of view of a medieval person, divine powers could manifest themselves in life either directly or indirectly, with the help of various hints. Perceiving reality as a symbol of the ideal world, a person perceived any phenomenon, any object real world as a sign expressing the sacred essence of this phenomenon or object. Based on this vision of the world, the symbolism (11) - one of the most characteristic features of medieval literature. The emergence of symbolism in the DRL should not be associated solely with the dominance of Christian ideology. It is inherent in art and pre-Christian eras. So, A.N. Veselovsky distinguished between pagan symbolism and Christian symbolism. In his opinion, in paganism “the symbol came out of life,” while in Christianity “life begins to be determined by the mental material introduced into it.”

Medieval literature and art are built on symbols. Dionysius the Areopagite states: “Manifest things are images of invisible things.” Each thing is a symbol of the invisible. In the medieval consciousness, the world doubles. The real, earthly world is a symbol and prototype of the ideal, heavenly world. Only one who has achieved perfection through internal contemplation can penetrate into the heavenly world; then the inner gaze opens and prophets are born. Let us note that literature does not forget anything. Based on the principle of doubling the world, images of poet-prophets appear in romantic aesthetics.

Events also double up. They have analogues in the past, primarily in the biblical and gospel history, which is thought of as reality. In a historical event it is important to find hidden meaning. God is an intelligent and wise mentor who is trying to educate humanity with his batog. Please note that symbolism, like the historicism of the DRL, turns out to be associated with the idea of predestination, providentialism. Objects are symbolic. The sword is a symbol of power and justice, the shield is protection, defense. The church is a symbol of heaven, the earthly sky, the ark of salvation (just as God saved Noah in the ark, so the temple saves man). Gold symbolizes eternity and Christ. The cross is salvation, the torment of the cross. Note that the symbolism of the DRL gave rise to the predominance of the parable genre, which was the fundamental principle genre systems.

Of course, all these features of DRL could not remain unchanged for seven centuries; they gradually transformed as literature developed.

Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.

Old Russian literature (ORL) is doubly specific, since in addition to national features it bears the features of the Middle Ages (XI-XVII centuries), which had a decisive influence on the worldview and human psychology of Ancient Rus'.

Two blocks of specific features can be distinguished.

The first block can be called general cultural, the second is most closely connected with the inner world of the personality of a person in the Russian Middle Ages.

Let's talk about the first block very briefly. Firstly, ancient Russian literature was handwritten. In the first centuries of Russian literary process the writing material was parchment (or parchment). It was made from the skin of calves or lambs and therefore it was called “veal” in Rus'. Parchment was an expensive material, it was used extremely carefully and the most important things were written on it. Later, paper appeared instead of parchment, which partly contributed, in the words of D. Likhachev, to “the breakthrough of literature to the masses.”

In Rus', three main types of writing successively replaced each other. The first (XI–XIV centuries) was called the charter, the second (XV–XVI centuries) was called the semi-ustav, the third (XVII century) was called cursive.

Since writing material was expensive, the book’s customers (large monasteries, princes, boyars) wanted the works that most interested them on various subjects and the time of their creation to be collected under one cover.

Works of ancient Russian literature are usually called monuments.

Monuments in Ancient Rus' functioned in the form of collections.

Particular attention should be paid to the second block of specific features of DRL.

1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is explained not only by the high price of the book. Old Russian man, in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him, strove for a kind of encyclopedicism. Therefore, ancient Russian collections often contain monuments of various themes and issues.

2. In the first centuries of the development of DRL, fiction had not yet emerged as an independent area of creativity and social consciousness. Therefore, one and the same monument was simultaneously a monument of literature, a monument of historical thought, and a monument of philosophy, which existed in Ancient Rus' in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, Russian chronicles until the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianova-Peretz did the chronicles become the object of literary criticism.

At the same time, the special philosophical richness of Old Russian literature in subsequent centuries of Russian literary development will not only be preserved, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national features of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A. Losev to state with certainty: “Fiction is a storehouse of original Russian philosophy. In the prose works of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...>basic ones are often developed philosophical problems, of course, in their specifically Russian, exclusively practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an unbiased and knowledgeable judge will call these solutions not just “literary” or “artistic,” but philosophical and ingenious.”

3. Old Russian literature was anonymous (impersonal) in nature, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature - the collectivity of creativity. The authors of Ancient Rus' (often called scribes) did not strive to leave their name for centuries, firstly, due to the Christian tradition (scribe-monks often call themselves “unreasonable,” “sinful” monks who dared to become creators of the artistic word); secondly, due to the understanding of one’s work as part of an all-Russian, collective endeavor.

At first glance, this trait seems to indicate a poorly developed personality in the Old Russian author compared to Western European masters artistic word. Even the name of the author of the brilliant “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can “boast” of hundreds of great names. However, there can be no talk of the “backwardness” of ancient Russian literature or its “impersonality.” We can talk about its special national quality. Once D. Likhachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and Old Russian literature with a choir. Is choral singing really less beautiful than the performances of individual soloists? Is there really no manifestation of human personality in him?

4. The main character of ancient Russian literature is the Russian land. We agree with D. Likhachev, who emphasized that the literature of the pre-Mongol period is the literature of one theme - the theme of the Russian land. This does not mean at all that ancient Russian authors “refuse” to depict the experiences of an individual human personality, “get fixated” on the Russian land, depriving themselves of individuality and sharply limiting the “universal” significance of the DRL.

Firstly, ancient Russian authors always, even in the most tragic moments of Russian history, for example, in the first decades of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, sought through the richest Byzantine literature to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations. Thus, in the 13th century, the medieval encyclopedias “Melissa” (“Bee”) and “Physiologist” were translated into Old Russian.

Secondly, and this is the most important thing, we must keep in mind that the personality of a Russian person and the personality of a Western European are formed on different ideological foundations: the Western European personality is individualistic, it is affirmed due to its special significance and exclusivity. This is due to the special course of Western European history, with the development of the Western Christian Church (Catholicism). A Russian person, by virtue of his Orthodoxy (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy), denies the individualistic (egoistic) principle as destructive both for the individual himself and for his environment. Russian classical literature- from the nameless scribes of Ancient Rus' to Pushkin and Gogol, A. Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V. Rasputin and V. Belov - depicts the tragedy of the individualistic personality and affirms his heroes on the path to overcoming the evil of individualism.

5. Old Russian literature did not know fiction. This refers to a conscious orientation towards fiction. The author and the reader absolutely believe in the truth of the literary word, even if we are talking about fiction from the point of view of a secular person.

A conscious attitude towards fiction will appear later. This will happen at the end of the 15th century during a period of intensified political struggle for leadership in the process of unifying the original Russian lands. Rulers will also appeal to the unconditional authority of the book word. This is how the genre of political legend will arise. In Moscow there will appear: the eschatological theory “Moscow - the Third Rome”, which naturally took on a topical political overtones, as well as “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”. In Veliky Novgorod - “The Legend of the Novgorod White Cowl.”

6. In the first centuries of DRL, they tried not to depict everyday life for the following reasons. The first (religious): everyday life is sinful, its image prevents earthly man from directing his aspirations to the salvation of the soul. Second (psychological): life seemed unchanged. Both grandfather, father, and son wore the same clothes, weapons did not change, etc.

Over time, under the influence of the process of secularization, everyday life penetrates more and more into the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the 16th century of the genre of everyday stories (“The Tale of Ulyaniya Osorgina”), and in the 17th century the genre of everyday stories will become the most popular.

7. DRL is characterized by a special attitude to history. The past is not only not separated from the present, but is actively present in it, and also determines the fate of the future. An example of this is “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Story of the Crime of the Ryazan Princes”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, etc.

8. Old Russian literature wore teacher character. This means that ancient Russian scribes sought, first of all, to enlighten the souls of their readers with the light of Christianity. In DRL, unlike Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to entice the reader with a wonderful fiction, to take him away from life’s difficulties. Adventurous translated stories will gradually penetrate into Russia from the beginning of the 17th century, when the Western European influence on Russian life becomes obvious.

So we see that individual specific features DRL will gradually be lost over time. However, those characteristics of Russian national literature that determine the core of its ideological orientation will remain unchanged until the present time.

Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The intensity of its spread is indisputable evidence that the emergence of writing was caused by the needs of the state.

History of appearance

Writing was used in various fields public and state life, in the legal sphere, international and domestic relations.

After the emergence of writing, the activities of copyists and translators were stimulated, and various genres of Old Russian literature began to develop.

It served the needs and needs of the church, and consisted of solemn words, lives, and teachings. Secular literature appeared in Ancient Rus' and chronicles began to be kept.

In the minds of people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.

Old Russian writers: chroniclers, hagiographers, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of the X - beginning of the XI century. In Rus', a huge amount of work was carried out aimed at translating from ancient Greek language literary sources. Thanks to such activities, ancient Russian scribes managed to become familiar with many monuments of Byzantine times over two centuries, and on their basis created various genres of ancient Russian literature. D. S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of Rus'’s introduction to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, identified two characteristic features similar process.

He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Rus'.

Such intermediary literature included liturgical books, sacred scriptures, chronicles, works of church writers, and natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments historical narrative, for example, "The Romance of Alexander the Great".

Most of the ancient Bulgarian literature, the Slavic medium, were translations from Greek, as well as works of early Christian literature written in the 3rd-7th centuries.

It is impossible to mechanically divide ancient Slavic literature into translated and original; they are organically connected parts of a single organism.

Reading other people's books in Ancient Rus' is evidence of the secondary nature of national culture in the field of artistic expression. At first, among the written monuments there was a sufficient number of non-literary texts: works on theology, history, and ethics.

The main type of verbal art became folklore works. To understand the uniqueness and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize yourself with works that are “outside genre systems”: “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.

Primary genres

The genres of ancient Russian literature include those works that became building material for other directions. These include:

teachings;
stories;
word;
hagiography

Such genres of works of ancient Russian literature include chronicle story, weather record, church legend, chronicle legend.

Life

Was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and widespread. Life was considered an obligatory attribute when a person was ranked among the saints, that is, canonized. It was created by people who directly communicate with a person, who are able to reliably tell about bright moments his life. The text was compiled after the death of the one about whom it was spoken. It performed a significant educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a standard (model) of righteous existence and was imitated.

The Life helped people overcome the fear of death, the idea of immortality was preached human soul.

Canons of Life

Analyzing the features of the genres of ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons according to which the hagiography was created remained unchanged until the 16th century. First they talked about the origin of the hero, then they gave space detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with glorification.

Discussing which genres ancient Russian literature considered the most interesting, we note that it was the life that made it possible to describe the existence of the holy princes Gleb and Boris.

Old Russian eloquence

Answering the question about what genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that eloquence came in three versions:

political;
didactic;
solemn.

Teaching

The system of genres of Old Russian literature distinguished it as a type of Old Russian eloquence. In their teaching, the chroniclers tried to highlight the standard of behavior for everyone ancient Russian people: commoner, prince. The most striking example of this genre is considered to be the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” from the “Tale of Bygone Years”, dating back to 1096. At that time, disputes for the throne between the princes reached their maximum intensity. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations regarding the organization of his life. He suggests seeking the salvation of the soul in seclusion, calls for helping people in need, and serving God.

Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before a military campaign with an example from his own life. He proposes to build public relations in harmony with nature.

Sermon

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we emphasize that this oratorical church genre, which has a unique theory, was involved in historical and literary study only in the form that at some stages it was indicative of the era.

The sermon called Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, and Gregory Dvoeslov “fathers of the church.” Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of modern German prose, and the statements of Bourdalou, Bossuet, and other speakers of the 17th century are the most important examples of the prose style of French classicism. The role of sermons in medieval Russian literature is high; they confirm the uniqueness of the genres of ancient Russian literature.

Samples of Russian ancient pre-Mongol sermons that give a complete idea of the creation of composition and elements artistic style, historians consider the “Words” of Metropolitan Hilarion and Cyril of Turvo. They skillfully used Byzantine sources, and based on them they created quite good works of their own. They use a sufficient amount of antitheses, comparisons, personifications of abstract concepts, allegories, rhetorical fragments, dramatic presentation, dialogues, and partial landscapes.

Professionals consider the following examples of sermons presented in an unusual stylistic design to be the “Words” of Serapion of Vladimir and the “Words” of Maxim the Greek. The heyday of the practice and theory of preaching art occurred in the 18th century, they discussed the struggle between Ukraine and Poland.

Word

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will pay special attention to the word. It is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of its political variability, let us name “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work causes serious controversy among many historians.

The historical genre of ancient Russian literature, to which “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” can be attributed, amazes with the unusualness of its techniques and artistic means.

In this work, the chronological traditional version of the narrative is violated. The author first moves into the past, then mentions the present, uses lyrical digressions, which make it possible to write in various episodes: Yaroslavna’s cry, Svyatoslav’s dream.

The “Word” contains various elements of oral traditional folk art and symbols. It contains epics, fairy tales, and there is also a political background: Russian princes united in the fight against a common enemy.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is one of the books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is on a par with other works:

"Song of the Nibelungs";
"The Knight in Tiger Skin";
"David of Sasun".

These works are considered single-stage and belong to one stage of folklore and literary formation.

The Word combines two folklore genre: lamentation and glory. Throughout the entire work there is a mourning of dramatic events and glorification of princes.

Similar techniques are characteristic of other works of Ancient Rus'. For example, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” is a combination of the lament of the dying Russian land with the glory of the powerful past.

As a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, authored by Metropolitan Hilarion, appears. This work appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. The reason for writing was the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The work contains the idea of complete independence of Rus' from the Byzantine Empire.

Under the “Law,” Hilarion notes the Old Testament, given to the Jews, which was not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a New Covenant called “Grace.” Hilarion writes that just as Emperor Constantine is revered in Byzantium, the Russian people also respect Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus'.

Tale

Having examined the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will pay attention to stories. These are the texts epic looking, telling about military exploits, princes, and their deeds. Examples of such works are:

“The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”;
“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu Khan”;
"The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River."

The most widespread genre in ancient Russian literature was the military story. Were published various lists works related to it. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of stories: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of the military story was considered the secular literature of Ancient Rus', it integrally belongs to the circle of church literature.

The versatility of the themes of such works is explained by the combination of the heritage of the pagan past with the new Christian worldview. These elements give rise to a new perception of military feat, combining heroic and everyday traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the 11th century, experts highlight translated works: “Alexandria”, “Devgenie’s Act”.

N.A. Meshchersky, engaged in in-depth research of this literary monument, believed that “History” had the greatest influence on the formation of the military history of Ancient Rus'. He confirms his opinion with a significant number of quotations used in various ancient Russian literary works: “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, the Kyiv and Galician-Volyn Chronicles.

Historians admit that Icelandic sagas and military epics were used in the formation of this genre.

The warrior was endowed with courageous valor and holiness. The idea of it is similar to the description epic hero. The essence of military feat has changed; the desire to die for the great faith comes first.

A separate role was assigned to princely service. The desire for self-realization turns into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in connection with verbal and ritual forms of culture.

Chronicle

It is a kind of narrative about historical events. The chronicle is considered one of the first genres of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus' she played special role, since it did not just report some historical event, but was also a legal and political document, and was a confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. Most ancient chronicle It is generally accepted to consider the “Tale of Bygone Years”, which has come down to us in the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 16th century. She talks about the origin Kyiv princes, about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.

Chronicles are considered “unifying genres” that subordinate the following components: military, historical story, life of a saint, words of praise, teachings.

Chronograph

These are texts that contain detailed description time XV-XVI centuries. Historians consider “Chronograph according to the Great Exposition” to be one of the first such works. This work did not reach in full until our time, so information about it is quite contradictory.

In addition to those genres of ancient Russian literature that are listed in the article, there were many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the versatility and uniqueness literary works created in Ancient Rus'.

The originality of ancient Russian literature:

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism. Its heroes are predominantly historical figures; it allows almost no fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about “miracles” - phenomena that seemed supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the invention of an ancient Russian writer, but rather accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the people themselves with whom the “miracle” happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state and the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in man's ability to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, “listening to good and evil indifferently.” Any genre of ancient literature, be it a historical story or legend, hagiography or church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Touching primarily on state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of words, in the power of persuasion. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to ensure that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

The literature of Ancient Rus' expressed and defended the interests of the upper echelons of feudal society. However, it could not help but show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings or in the forms of typically medieval religious heresies. The literature vividly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groups within the ruling class, each of which sought support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected national interests, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the nationality of ancient Russian literature.

In the 11th – first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

The problem of artistic method:

The artistic method of ancient Russian literature is inextricably linked with the nature of the worldview, the worldview of medieval man, which absorbed religious speculative ideas about the world and a concrete vision of reality associated with labor practice. In the minds of medieval man, the world existed in two dimensions: real, earthly and heavenly, spiritual. The Christian religion insisted that human life on earth is temporary. The purpose of earthly life is preparation for eternal, incorruptible life. These preparations should consist of moral improvement of the soul, curbing sinful passions, etc.

Two aspects of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature are associated with the dual nature of the worldview of medieval man:

1) reproduction of individual facts in all their specificity, purely empirical statements;

2) consistent transformation of life, that is, the idealization of the facts of real life, the image not of what exists, but of what should be.

The first side of the artistic method is associated with the historicism of Old Russian literature in its medieval understanding, and with the second - its symbolism.

The Old Russian writer was convinced that symbols are hidden in nature, in man himself. He believed that historical events were also full of symbolic meaning, since he believed that history moves and is directed by the will of the deity. The writer considered symbols as the main means of revealing the truth, discovering the inner meaning of a phenomenon. Just as the phenomena of the surrounding world are polysemantic, so is the word. This is where the symbolic nature of metaphors and comparisons in ancient Russian literature stems.

As a rule, the heroes of works of ancient Russian literature are historical figures. Only in some cases do representatives of the people turn out to be heroes.

In the view of the ancient Russian writer, life is a constant arena of the struggle between good and evil.

In the consciousness of the ancient Russian writer, the categories of ethical and aesthetic merged. Good is always beautiful. Evil is associated with darkness.

The writer builds his works on the contrast of good and evil. He brings the reader to the idea that high moral qualities of a person are the result of hard moral work.

The behavior and actions of the heroes are determined by their social status, their belonging to the princely, boyar, druzhina, and church classes.

The works of ancient Russian literature were didactic and moralizing in nature. They were called upon to help get rid of vices.

So, medieval historicism, symbolism, ritualism and didacticism are the leading principles of artistic representation in works of ancient Russian literature. In different works, depending on the genre and time of their creation, these features manifested themselves differently.

The historical development of Old Russian literature proceeded through the gradual destruction of the integrity of its method, liberation from Christian symbolism, ritualism and didacticism.

3 – 6. “The Tale of Bygone Years.”

The main ideas of the initial chronicle. Already in the title itself - “Behold the tales of the bygone years, where did the Russian land come from, who began to reign first in Kyiv, and where did the Russian land come from” - contains an indication of the ideological and thematic content of the chronicle. The Russian land, its historical destinies, from its origin to the first decade of the 12th century, are the focus of the chronicle. The high patriotic idea of the power of the Russian land, its political independence, religious independence from Byzantium constantly guides the chronicler when he introduces into his work the “traditions of deep antiquity” and truly historical events of the recent past.

The chronicles are unusually topical, journalistic, full of sharp condemnation of princely strife and strife, weakening the power of the Russian land, a call to guard the Russian land, not to disgrace the Russian land in the fight against external enemies, first of all with the steppe nomads - the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsians.

The theme of the homeland is decisive and leading in the chronicle. The interests of the homeland dictate to the chronicler one or another assessment of the prince’s actions and are the measure of his glory and greatness. Living feeling The Russian land, homeland and people convey to the Russian chronicler that unprecedented breadth of political horizon, which is unusual for Western European historical chronicles.

From written sources, chroniclers borrow the historical Christian-scholastic concept, connecting the history of the Russian land with the general course of development of “world” history. The Tale of Bygone Years opens with the biblical legend about the division of the earth after the flood between the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japheth. The Slavs are the descendants of Japhet, that is, they, like the Greeks, belong to a single family of European peoples.

Finally, it is possible to “establish” the first date - 6360 - (852) - mentioned in "Chronicles of the Greeks" "Russian Land". This date makes it possible to put "numbers in a row" that is, proceed to a consistent chronological presentation, more precisely, the arrangement of the material "by the years" - by year. And when they cannot attach any event to a particular date, they limit themselves to simply fixing the date itself (for example: “in the summer of 6368”, “in the summer of 6369”). The chronological principle provided ample opportunities for free handling of the material, made it possible to introduce new legends and stories into the chronicle, exclude old ones if they did not correspond to the political interests of the time and the author, and supplement the chronicle with records of events of recent years, of which its compiler was a contemporary.

As a result of the application of the weather chronological principle of presenting the material, the idea of history gradually emerged as a continuous sequential chain of events. The chronological connection was reinforced by a genealogical, tribal connection, the continuity of the rulers of the Russian land, starting from Rurik and ending (in the Tale of Bygone Years) with Vladimir Monomakh.

At the same time, this principle made the chronicle fragmentary, which I. P. Eremin drew attention to.

Genres included in the chronicle. The chronological principle of presentation allowed the chroniclers to include in the chronicle material that was heterogeneous in nature and genre characteristics. The simplest narrative unit of a chronicle is a laconic weather record, limited only to a statement of fact. However, the very inclusion of this or that information in the chronicle indicates its significance from the point of view of the medieval writer.

The chronicle also presents a type of detailed record, recording not only the “actions” of the prince, but also their results. For example: "IN summer 6391. Until Oleg fought the Derevlyans, and, having tormented them, imposed a tribute on them, according to black kun.” etc.

Both a brief weather record and a more detailed documentary one. There are no speech-decorating tropes in them. The recording is simple, clear and concise, which gives it special significance, expressiveness and even majesty.

The chronicler's focus is on the event - "What's going on in the summer of strength." They are followed by news of the death of the princes. The birth of children and their marriage are recorded less often. Then information about the construction activities of the princes. Finally, reports on church affairs, which occupy a very modest place. True, the chronicler describes the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, includes legends about the beginning of the Pechersk Monastery, the death of Theodosius of Pechersk and stories about the memorable monks of Pechersk. This is quite explainable by the political significance of the cult of the first Russian saints Boris and Gleb and the role of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery in the formation of the initial chronicle.

An important group of chronicle news consists of information about heavenly signs - eclipses of the sun, moon, earthquakes, epidemics, etc. The chronicler sees a connection between unusual natural phenomena and the lives of people, historical events. Historical experience associated with the evidence of the chronicle of George Amartol leads the chronicler to the conclusion: “For signs in the heavens, or the stars, or the sun, or birds, or creatures, are not for good; but there are signs of evil, whether the manifestation of an army, or a famine, or death.”

News of various topics can be combined within one chronicle article. The material included in the “Tale of Bygone Years” allows us to distinguish a historical legend, a toponymic legend, a historical legend (associated with the heroic druzhina epic), a hagiographic legend, as well as a historical legend and a historical story.

The connection between the chronicle and folklore . The chronicler draws material about the events of the distant past from the treasury of folk memory.

The appeal to the toponymic legend was dictated by the chronicler’s desire to find out the origin of the names of Slavic tribes, individual cities and the word “Rus” itself. Thus, the origin of the Slavic tribes Radimichi and Vyatichi is associated with the legendary people from the Poles - the brothers Radim and Vyatko. This legend arose among the Slavs, obviously, during the period of decomposition of the clan system, when an isolated clan elder, in order to justify his right to political dominance over the rest of the clan, creates a legend about his supposedly foreign origin. Close to this chronicle legend is the legend about the calling of princes, placed in the chronicle under 6370 (862). At the invitation of the Novgorodians from overseas "to reign and to become voluptuous" Three Varangian brothers come to the Russian land with their families: Rurik, Sineus, Truvor.

The folklore nature of the legend confirms the presence of the epic number three - three brothers.

The legend about the calling of the princes served as an important argument for proving the sovereignty of the Kyiv state, and did not at all indicate the inability of the Slavs to independently organize their state, without the help of Europeans, as some scientists tried to prove.

A typical toponymic legend is also the legend about the founding of Kyiv by three brothers - Kiy, Shchek, Khoryv and their sister Lybid. On oral source The chronicler himself indicates the material included in the chronicle: “Ini, ignorant, rekosha, what kind of carrier Kiy was.” The chronicler indignantly rejects the version of the folk legend about Kie the Carrier. He categorically states that Kiy was a prince, made successful campaigns against Constantinople, where he received great honor from the Greek king and founded the settlement of Kievets on the Danube.

Echoes of ritual poetry from the times of the clan system are filled with chronicles about Slavic tribes, their customs, wedding and funeral ceremonies.

The chronicle news about Vladimir’s marriage to the Polotsk princess Rogneda, about his abundant and generous feasts held in Kyiv - the Korsun legend - goes back to folk tales. On the one hand, before us appears a pagan prince with his unbridled passions, on the other, an ideal Christian ruler, endowed with all the virtues: meekness, humility, love for the poor, for the monastic and monastic order, etc. A contrasting comparison of the pagan prince With the Christian prince, the chronicler sought to prove the superiority of the new Christian morality over pagan morality.

The reign of Vladimir was covered in the heroism of folk tales already at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.

The spirit of the people heroic epic is imbued with the legend of the victory of the Russian youth Kozhemyaki over the Pecheneg giant. As in the folk epic, the legend emphasizes the superiority of a person of peaceful labor, a simple artisan over a professional warrior - a Pecheneg hero. The images of the legend are built on the principle of contrastive comparison and broad generalization. At first glance, the Russian young man is an ordinary, unremarkable person, but he embodies the enormous, gigantic strength that the Russian people possess, decorating the land with their labor and protecting it on the battlefield from external enemies. The Pecheneg warrior with his gigantic size terrifies those around him. The boastful and arrogant enemy is contrasted with a modest Russian youth, the youngest son of a tanner. He accomplishes the feat without arrogance and boasting. At the same time, the legend is confined to the toponymic legend about the origin of the city of Pereyaslavl - “the zone of reaping the glory of the youth”, but this is a clear anachronism, since Pereyaslavl was already mentioned more than once in the chronicle before this event.

The legend of Belgorod jelly is associated with the folk fairy tale epic. This legend glorifies the intelligence, resourcefulness and ingenuity of the Russian people.

The folklore basis is clearly felt in the church legend about the visit to the Russian land by the Apostle Andrew. By placing this legend, the chronicler sought to “historically” substantiate the religious independence of Rus' from Byzantium. The legend claimed that the Russian land received Christianity not from the Greeks, but allegedly by the disciple of Christ himself - the Apostle Andrew, who once walked the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" along the Dnieper and Volkhov, Christianity was predicted on Russian soil. The church legend about how Andrei blessed the Kyiv mountains is combined with the folk tale about Andrei’s visit to the Novgorod land. This legend is of an everyday nature and is associated with the custom of the inhabitants of the Slavic north to steam in hotly heated wooden baths.

Most of the chronicles dedicated to the events of the 9th - late 10th centuries are associated with oral folk art and its epic genres.

Historical stories and legends as part of the chronicle . As the chronicler moves from narrating events of long ago to the recent past, the chronicle material becomes more and more historically accurate, strictly factual and official.

The chronicler's attention is drawn only to historical figures at the top of the feudal hierarchical ladder. In depicting their actions, he follows the principles of medieval historicism. According to these principles, only purely official events that have historical significance for the state should be recorded in the chronicle, and the private life of a person and the everyday environment around him are not of interest to the chronicler.

The chronicle develops the ideal of a prince-ruler. This ideal is inseparable from the general patriotic ideas of the chronicle. The ideal ruler is the living embodiment of love for native land, her honor and glory, the personification of her power and dignity. All his actions, all his activities are determined by the good of his homeland and people. Therefore, in the view of the chronicler, the prince cannot belong to himself. He is first and foremost a historical figure who always appears in an official setting, endowed with all the attributes of princely power. D. S. Likhachev notes that the prince in the chronicle is always official, he seems to be addressed to the viewer and is presented in his most significant actions. The prince's virtues are a kind of ceremonial clothing; at the same time, some virtues are purely mechanically attached to others, thanks to which it became possible to combine secular and church ideals. Fearlessness, courage, military valor are combined with humility, meekness and other Christian virtues.

If the prince’s activities are aimed at the good of his homeland, the chronicler glorifies him in every possible way, endowing him with all the qualities of a predetermined ideal. If the prince’s activities run counter to the interests of the state, the chronicler does not spare black paint and attributes to the negative character all the mortal sins: pride, envy, ambition, greed, etc.

The principles of medieval historicism are vividly embodied in stories "About the murder of Borisov"(1015) and about the blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky, which can be classified as historical stories about princely crimes. However, in style these are completely different works. Tale "About the murder of Borisov" sets out the historical facts of the murder of the brothers Boris and Gleb by Svyatopolk with extensive use of elements of hagiographic style. It is built on the contrast of the ideal prince-martyrs and the ideal villain. "cursed" Svyatopolk. The story ends with praise oh, glorifying “Christ-loving passion-bearers”, “shining lamps”, “bright stars” - “intercessors of the Russian land”. At its end there is a prayer call to the martyrs to conquer the filthy "under the nose of our prince" and deliver them "from the internal army" so that they may remain in peace and unity. This is how the patriotic idea common to the entire chronicle is expressed in hagiographic form. At the same time the story "About the murder of Borisov" interesting for a number of “documentary” details, “realistic details”.

The story does not idealize Vasilko. He is not only a victim of slander, cruelty and treachery of Davyd Igorevich, gullibility of Svyatopolk, but he himself reveals no less cruelty both towards the perpetrators of evil and towards innocent people. There is no idealization in the depiction of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk, indecisive, gullible, weak-willed. The story allows the modern reader to imagine the characters of living people with their human weaknesses and strengths.

The story was written by a medieval writer who builds it on the opposition of two symbolic images“cross” and “knife”, the leitmotif running through the entire narrative.

Thus, “The Tale of the Blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky” sharply condemns the princes’ violation of their contractual obligations, leading to terrible bloody crimes, bringing evil to the entire Russian land.

Descriptions of events related to the military campaigns of the princes take on the character of a historical documentary tale, indicating the formation of the genre of military stories. Elements of this genre are present in the tale of Yaroslav’s revenge on the Accursed Svyatopolk in 1015-1016.

This chronicle tale already contains the main plot and compositional elements of a military story: gathering troops, going on a campaign, preparing for battle, battle and its denouement.

All this allows us to talk about the presence in “The Tale of Bygone Years” of the main components of the genre of a military story.

Within the framework of the historical documentary style, messages about heavenly signs are kept in the chronicle.

Elements of hagiographic style . The compilers of the “Tale of Bygone Years” also included hagiographic works: a Christian legend, a martyr’s life (the tale of two Varangian martyrs), a legend about the founding of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery in 1051, about the death of its abbot Theodosius of Pechersk in 1074 and the legend of the Pechersk monks. The tales included in the chronicles about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb (1072) and Theodosius of Pechersk (1091) were written in a hagiographic style.

The chronicle exalted the exploits of the founders of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, which was "set" neither "from kings, and from boyars, and from wealth", A "tears, and fasting, and vigil" Anthony and Theodosius of Pechersk. In 1074, following the story of the death of Theodosius, the chronicler tells about the Pechersk monk people who “Like the lights shine in Rus'.”

One of the forms of glorifying princes in the chronicles is posthumous obituaries, associated with the genre of funeral praise words. The first such word of praise is the obituary of Princess Olga, placed under 969. It begins with a series of metaphorical comparisons glorifying the first Christian princess. The metaphorical images of “daybreak”, “dawn”, “light”, “moon”, “beads” (pearls) were borrowed by the chronicler from Byzantine hagiographic literature, but they were used to glorify the Russian princess and emphasize the significance for Rus' of her feat - the adoption of Christianity.

The obituary-praise of Olga is stylistically close to the praise of Vladimir, placed in the chronicle under 1015. The deceased prince receives an evaluative epithet "blissful", that is, righteous, and his feat is equal to the feat of Constantine the Great.

Obituaries of Mstislav and Rostislav can be classified as a genre of verbal portrait, in which a description of the external appearance and moral qualities princes: “But Mstislav was stout in body, dark-faced, great-eyed, brave in the army, merciful, loving his squad to the fullest, not sparing his property, neither drinking nor eating.”

The obituaries of Izyaslav and Vsevolod, along with the hagiographic idealization of these princes, concern specific moments of their activities, and in the obituary of Vsevolod a voice of condemnation is heard, since Vsevolod began to “to love the meaning of the lost, creating light with them.”

The chronicler drew moralizing maxims and figurative comparisons from Christian literature.

The function of biblical comparisons and reminiscences in the chronicle is different. These comparisons emphasize the significance and greatness of the Russian land, its princes; they allow chroniclers to transfer the narrative from a “temporary” historical plane to an “eternal” one, that is, they perform the artistic function of symbolic generalization. In addition, these comparisons are a means of moral assessment of events and the actions of historical figures.

7. The sermon “the word on law and grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion as an outstanding work of oratory of the 11th century. The theme is the equality of peoples, the glorification of the Russian land and its princes. Three-part composition. Metaphors-symbols, rhetorical questions and exclamations, rhythmic organization of the “Words on Law and Grace”.

“The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Hilarion. An outstanding work of oratorical prose of the 11th century is “The Sermon on Law and Grace.” It was written between 1037-1050. priest of the princely church in Berestov Hilarion.

“The Sermon on Law and Grace” is imbued with the patriotic pathos of glorifying Rus' as equal among all states of the world. Hilarion contrasts the Byzantine theory of the universal empire and the church with the idea of equality of all Christian peoples. Comparing Judaism (Law) with Christianity (Grace), Hilarion at the beginning of his “Word” proves the advantages of Grace over the Law. The law was distributed only among the Jewish people. Grace is the property of all nations. The Old Testament - the Law given by God to the prophet Moses on Mount Sinai, regulated the life of only the Jewish people. New Testament- Christian doctrine - has worldwide significance, and every people has the full right to freely choose this Grace. Thus, Hilarion rejects the monopoly rights of Byzantium to the exclusive possession of Grace. He creates, as D.S. Likhachev rightly notes, his own patriotic concept of world history, glorifying Rus' and its "enlightener" "kagan" Vladimir.

Hilarion exalts Vladimir's feat in accepting and spreading Christianity in Rus'. Thanks to this feat, Rus' entered the family of Christian countries as a sovereign state. Vladimir ruled “not in harm’s way and not in unknown lands”, A “In Russian, which is known and heard by all, there are the ends of the earth.”

In his praise of Vladimir, Hilarion lists the prince’s services to his homeland. He says that his activities contributed to the glory and power of Rus'. At the same time, he emphasizes that the Christian faith was accepted by the Russians as a result of free choice, that the main merit in the baptism of Rus' belongs to Vladimir, and not to the Greeks. The Lay contains a comparison of Vladimir with Tsar Constantine, which was very offensive to the Greeks.

Hilarion’s “Word” is built according to a strict, logically thought-out plan, which is communicated by the author in the title of the work: “The word about the law that Moses gave to him, and about grace and truth, Jesus Christ was, and as the law came, grace and truth filled the whole earth, and faith in all languages extended to our Russian language and praise to our kagan Vlodimer, from him And we were baptized and prayed to God from the weight of our earth.”

The first part - a comparison of Law and Grace - is a lengthy introduction to the second, central, part of praise to Vladimir, ending with the author's appeal to Vladimir with a call to rise from the grave, shake off his sleep and look at the deeds of his son George (the Christian name of Yaroslav). The second part aims to directly glorify the ruler of Rus' contemporary to Hilarion and his activities. The third part is a prayer appeal to God "from all our land."

The “Word” is addressed to people “we have had our fill of book sweets”, therefore, the author puts his work into bookish rhetorical form. He constantly uses quotes from the Bible, biblical comparisons, comparing the Law with the slave Hagar and her son Ishmael, and Grace with Sarah and her son Isaac. These symbolic parallels are intended to more clearly demonstrate the superiority of Grace over the Law.

In the first part of the Lay, Hilarion consistently observes the principle of antithesis - the most typical technique of oratorical eloquence. “First the law, then grace: first the steppe(shadow) you, then the truth.”

Hilarion widely uses book metaphors - symbols and metaphorical comparisons: Law is "dry lake"; paganism - “darkness of idols”, “darkness of demonic service”; Grace is "flooded spring" etc. He often uses rhetorical questions and exclamations - typical techniques of solemn eloquence, with the help of which greater emotionality of speech is achieved. The rhythmic organization of the Lay serves the same purpose. Hilarion often resorts to repetitions and verbal rhymes. For example: “... drive away the warriors, establish peace, tame the countries, make gladugobzi, make the Bolyars wise, disperse the cities, grow your church, preserve your property, save husbands and wives and babies.”

High artistic skill ensured “The Word of Law and Grace” great popularity in medieval writing. It becomes a model for scribes of the 12th-15th centuries, who use individual techniques and stylistic formulas of the Lay.

8. Didactic “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh” - a work of political and moral instruction. The image of an outstanding politician and warrior. Autobiographical elements in "Instruction". Emotional and lyrical coloring of the work.

“Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, written by him "sitting on a sleigh" that is, shortly before his death, somewhere around 1117, it was attributed by chroniclers to similar wills addressed to children.

The outstanding statesman of the late 11th - early 12th centuries, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1052-1125), through his policies contributed to the temporary cessation of princely strife. He became famous for his successful campaigns against the Polovtsians. Having become the Grand Duke of Kyiv in 1113, Monomakh contributed in every possible way to strengthening the unity of the Russian land.

The central idea of the “Instruction” is a call addressed to the children of Monomakh and everyone who will hear "this grammar" strictly observe the requirements of the feudal legal order, be guided by them, and not by personal, selfish family interests. “Instruction” goes beyond the narrow framework of a family will and acquires great social significance.

Using the example of a personal rich life experience Vladimir gives a high example of the prince's service to the interests of his land.

A characteristic feature of the “Teaching” is the close interweaving of didactics with autobiographical elements. Monomakh’s instructions are supported not only by maxims from the “holy scripture”, but first of all concrete examples from my own life.

The “Teaching” brings to the fore the tasks of a national order. The sacred duty of the prince is concern for the good of his state, its unity, strict and strict observance of oaths and contracts. The prince must “care for the souls of the peasants”, “about the evil stench” And "poor widow." Internecine strife undermines the economic and political power of the state. Only peace leads to the prosperity of a country. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the ruler to maintain peace.

Another equally important duty of the prince, according to Monomakh, is care and concern for the welfare of the church. He understands that the church is the prince's faithful assistant. Therefore, in order to strengthen his power, the prince must vigilantly take care of the priestly and monastic rank. True, Monomakh does not recommend that his children save their souls in a monastery, that is, become a monk. The ascetic monastic ideal is alien to this life-loving, energetic person.

In accordance with Christian morality, Vladimir demands a caring attitude towards "poor"(to the poor).

The prince himself must be an example of high morality. The main positive quality of a person is hard work. Labor, in the understanding of Monomakh, is, first of all, military feat, and then hunting, when the body and soul of a person are tempered in the constant struggle against dangers.

Vladimir gives examples from his personal life: he made only 83 large campaigns, and does not remember small ones, he concluded 20 peace treaties. While hunting, he was in constant danger and risked his life more than once: “Tura threw me 2 narozekh and with a horse, a deer was one big, and 2 moose, one trampled with his feet, and the other was a big one; ...a fierce beast jumped onto my hips and the horse fell with me.”

Vladimir considers laziness to be the main vice: “Laziness is the mother of everything: if you know how, you’ll forget, but if you don’t know how, you can’t teach it.”

Monomakh himself appears in his “Teachings” as an unusually active person: “Whatever my youth had to do, I myself did, deeds in war and fishing, night and day, in heat and winter, without giving myself peace.”

One of the positive qualities of the prince is his generosity, constant concern for increasing and spreading his good name.

In everyday life, the prince should be a model for those around him: to visit the sick, to see off the dead, for everyone is mortal. Family relationships should be built on respect between husbands and wives: “Love your wife, but do not give them power over you,” he instructs.

Thus, in the “Instructions” Monomakh covers a fairly wide range of life phenomena. He gives clear answers to many social and moral questions of his time.

At the same time, the “Instruction” is a very valuable material for understanding the personality of the author himself - the first secular writer of Ancient Rus' known to us. First of all, he is a well-educated man knowledgeable in literature of its time. In his work, he uses the Psalter, the Book of Psalms, the teachings of Basil the Great, Xenophon and Theodora to children, placed in the “Izbornik 1076”, “Six Days”.

The “Instruction” is built according to a specific plan: an introduction addressed to children, with self-deprecation characteristic of the ancient Russian writer - not to laugh at his writing, but to accept it in your heart, not to scold, but to say that “On the long journey, and sitting on the sleigh, I said a foolish thing,” and finally, a request: “...if you don’t love the last one, take the first one.”

The central didactic part of the “Instruction” begins with a general philosophical discussion about the love of mankind and the mercy of God, about the need for victory over evil and the possibility of this victory, the guarantee of which is the beauty and harmony of the world created by God.

Gives a kind of diary of military campaigns, in a manner reminiscent of brief chronicle weather records, only without dates. Listing your "paths" Vladimir arranges them in chronological order starting from 1072 to 1117.

And again the conclusion follows. When addressing children or others, "who will read" Monomakh asks not to judge him. He praises not himself, not his courage, but praises God, who "thin and sinful" saved from death for so many years and created “not lazy”, “thin”, “all human needs are needed.”

In the style of the “Teaching” one can easily detect, on the one hand, its bookish elements associated with Vladimir’s use of literary sources, and on the other hand, elements of a living spoken language, especially clearly manifested in the description "paths" and the dangers to which he was exposed during the hunt. A characteristic feature of the “Teaching” style is the presence of polished, vivid, easy-to-remember aphoristic expressions.

In general, the “Instruction” and the letter clearly reveal the appearance of an extraordinary statesman of the Russian Middle Ages, a man in whom the ideal of a prince who cared about the glory and honor of his native land was vividly embodied.