Why literature is called the art of words briefly. Introduction. Fiction as the art of words

28.03.2019

Target: give the concept of literature as an art form in which the main means of figurative reflection of life is the word.

Material for the lesson:

A.P. Chekhov “At Home”.
V.V.Veresaev “Competition”.
R. Bradbury “Fahrenheit 451◦”.
Musical series:
♪ I. Krutoy. Music from the film “ Long road in the dunes."
♪ G. Sviridov. "Time forward!".
♪ Beethoven “Moonlight Sonata”.

Visual range:

Slides on the topic “WE” (Slides can be obtained from the author).
“Portrait of Ginevra de Benci” by Leonardo da Vinci.

Lesson summary

Epigraph:

"The beautiful awakens the good." D.S. Likhachev.
Beauty captivates forever.
You don’t get cold feet towards him. Never
He will not fall into insignificance...
S. Narovchatov.

Prologue:<♪ Звучит инструментальная композиция И.Крутого из к/ф “Долгая дорога в дюнах”>.

− Huge Universe. Cosmic winds blow in it, cosmic blizzards rage, centuries fly by in it like one day. In this vast cold Universe there is a blue planet called Earth. Forests rustle here and rivers flow. Winter gives way to autumn, and after spring always comes summer. And after day comes night, and after night invariably comes day.

There is one day on this huge blue planet. On this day you were born. And loving women's eyes shed tears of happiness. And your mother’s heart wished you a good journey. And your mother’s hands blessed your first steps on this earth. And they wished on a star with your name. And at that very second a new star lit up in the sky. Your star. She shines for you all your life, even if you don’t know about it. This is the star of your love, your happiness, your life. You didn't choose her. It was given to you from birth, like life. And you choose everything else in your life yourself. It's your right. Human right. And if you choose the right path, your star will illuminate it. And it depends only on you whether it goes out ahead of time.

May your star burn for a long time, you can and should do this!

Formulation of the problem:

<♪ Г. Свиридов “Время, вперед!”; слайдовый ряд “МЫ”>

XXI Century. Beginning of the century. We live in an age when one dictator threatens: “I will drown you in blood!” When another politician promises: “I will raise Russia from its knees!”

And somewhere there, in the Siberian wilderness, the district children's doctor writes out a prescription. He writes out a prescription... for an apple, for milk. It was. That's it. Will it be like this?!

The 21st century is called the century of science and technology. Progress creates the illusion that it is science and technology, the level of their development, that have become the measure of human values. Is it so? What is our attitude towards culture? Art? Literature?

Development I. Input.

Yes, books are disappearing from the lives of modern schoolchildren. And it’s scary to imagine the implementation of the situation that was modeled in the fantastic dystopia of the American writer Ray Douglas Bradbury “Fahrenheit 451◦”. This dystopia depicts a city where reading and possessing books is a terrible crime. All the books there have long been destroyed. And now, if even one book is found on someone, it is burned along with the house, and the owner is put to death. You can't save books there without dying yourself. Firefighters in this city don't exist to put out fires. And in order to burn books and the houses in which they are found. The hero of the novel, Guy Montag, is a fireman. For ten years he conscientiously and even enjoyed his terrible work. But one day, while on duty, he arrived at the house of an old woman who... Not wanting to part with her books, she burned down with them. From that day on, everything changed in Montag's life. The question began to torment him: what was written in these books. If because of them people go to their deaths? And to get an answer, he starts reading...

Express form:

Who would you be with if you were in this fantastic city:

with those who can easily do without books;
with those who secretly read books and kept them in memory;
with those who destroyed books.

Admit it to yourself honestly, do you need books when you have television, cinema, or a computer?

(Processing the results of the express questionnaire and summing up).

Development 1I. Literature as a form of art.

Literature is not just academic subject, giving a certain amount of knowledge, but, first of all, literature is a type of art.

Dictionary of literary terms:

Literature (from the Latin litera - letter, writing) is a type of art in which the main means of figurative reflection of life is the word.

Fiction- a type of art that is capable of revealing the phenomena of life in the most multifaceted and wide manner, showing them in movement and development.

(Write definitions in a dictionary)

As an art of words, fiction arose in oral folk art. Its sources were songs and folk epic tales. The word is an inexhaustible source of knowledge and an amazing means for creating artistic images. In words, in the language of any people, their history, their character, the nature of the Motherland are captured, the wisdom of centuries is concentrated. The living word is rich and generous. It has many shades. It can be menacing and gentle, instill horror and give hope. No wonder the poet Vadim Shefner said this about the word:

A word can kill, a word can save,
With a word you can lead the shelves with you.
In a word you can sell and betray and buy,
The word can be poured into striking lead.

Development III. “Literature is a textbook of life.”

But words in human speech and in fiction do not live separately. They are united and coordinated by thought, the idea of a work, and animated by human speech. A simple, familiar human word. But with the power of his talent, like a magic wand, a writer or poet turns the word to us in an unexpected direction, forcing us to feel, think, and empathize.

Anton Pavlovich Chekhov has a story: it’s called “At Home.” Here is its summary: “To Evgeniy Pavlovich Bykovsky, the prosecutor of the district court, who had just returned from the hearing, the governess of his seven-year-old son complained that Seryozha smoked and that he took tobacco from his father’s desk.

“Send him to me,” said Evgeniy Petrovich.
“I’m angry with you, and I don’t love you anymore,” the father cut off the boy’s greeting. – Now Natalia Semyonovna complained to me that you smoke. This is true?
- Yes, I smoked once, that’s true.
“You see, you’re lying on top of that,” said the prosecutor. – Natalia Semyonovna saw you smoke twice. This means that you have been convicted of three bad actions: smoking, taking someone else’s tobacco from the table and lying. Three faults!
“Oh, yes,” Seryozha remembered. And his eyes smiled. - That's true, that's true! I smoked twice: today and before.

Evgeniy Petrovich began to explain to his son that it is impossible to take someone else’s property, that a person has the right to use only his own property. He began to explain to him what property means, about the dangers of tobacco, that tobacco smoke produces consumption and other diseases, from which people die.

Evgeny Petrovich was painfully thinking about what else to say to his son in order to capture his attention. He saw that Seryozha was not listening to him. The boy first picked a hole in the cloth upholstery of the table with his finger, and then climbed onto a chair standing on the side of the table and began to draw.

And it seemed strange and funny to Evgeniy Petrovich that he, an experienced lawyer who had spent half his life practicing all kinds of suppressions, warnings and punishments, could not convince the boy that he had acted badly. Ten o'clock struck. Evgeny Petrovich tiredly sank into a chair. And Seryozha, sitting comfortably on his father’s lap, asked: “Daddy, tell me a story.”

Like most business people, Bykovsky did not remember a single fairy tale, so every time he had to improvise.

“Listen,” the father began, raising his eyes to the ceiling. - In a certain kingdom, in a certain state, there lived an old, aged king... He lived in a glass palace that shone and sparkled in the sun like a big piece pure ice. The palace stood in a huge garden where oranges and cherries grew, tulips and roses bloomed, and colorful birds sang. There were glass bells hanging on the trees, which, when the wind blew, sounded so tenderly that you could listen...

The old king had his only son and heir to the kingdom, a boy as small as you. But this prince began to smoke, fell ill and died when he was 20 years old.

The decrepit and sickly old man was left without any help. Enemies came, killed the king, destroyed the palace, and there were no cherries, no birds, no bells in the garden.

Seryozha listened intently. His eyes were filled with sadness and something like fear; For a minute he looked thoughtfully at the dark window, shuddered and said in a fallen voice: “I won’t smoke anymore...”

Conversation with students:

− What happened? Why in A.P.’s story? Did Chekhov's fairy tale turn out to be a better educator than all the logic of facts and beliefs?

Relaxation

- Now sit down more comfortably. Close your eyes. Your hands lie calm and free... (sounds instrumental music"Waterfall").

“Away with worries and worries. Lose yourself in thought: the music and sounds of the sorceress of nature will take you to a sparkling mountain stream. You will not find such peace and tranquility anywhere - only here, near the cool, clean waters., easily running down the green velvet of mossy stones. The banks of the stream are covered with a multicolored carpet of the brightest colors, and the light breath of the breeze carries their delicious aromas. A variety of birds sing in the foliage of tall trees. You are lying on the shore, looking at the sky, where lush clouds of various shapes float by. This wonderful moment can only be repeated by the Sparkling Time of Spring...”

- Open your eyes. Smile at yourself, your neighbor. You feel good and calm. You are in a good mood. So, you're ready to listen further.

Development IV. “The world will be saved by beauty”

What is beauty?
And why do people deify her?
Is she a vessel in which there is emptiness?
Or a fire flickering in a vessel? -

The answer to these questions is in V. Veresaev’s story “Competition”.

Teacher's retelling with selective reading of the end of the story against the background of music<♪ Бетховен “Лунная соната”>and reproductions of paintings by Leonardo da Vinci.

Conclusion:

Art is a great wizard and a kind of time machine. Any writer, observing, studying life, embodies with the help of words everything that he saw, felt, and understood. Literature has the special power of educating humanity in a person. It enriches us with very special knowledge - knowledge about people, about their inner world. Literature as the art of words has an amazing ability to influence the minds and hearts of people and helps to reveal the true beauty of the human soul.

Epilogue.

<♪ Инструментальная музыка>

You enter life as if through the doors of a workshop.
At your disposal from now on
Wonderful world beautiful, human
Built by tragedy in the desert.
And his brand burns on you
Responsibility, actions and words.
It contains a lot of new old,
And the old is significant and new.
Enter it as a master boldly!
He is waiting for you and demands an answer.
Warm him with your tragedy,
Add more love and light to him!

− Today in class you opened the art world literature, heard the works of great writers, felt loving attention and respect for living life and man, nature, and the world as a whole.

Fiction- a type of art that uses words and structures of natural language as the only material. The specificity of fiction is revealed in comparison, on the one hand, with types of art that use other material instead of verbal and linguistic (music, visual arts) or along with it (theater, cinema, song, visual poetry), on the other hand, with other types verbal text: philosophical, journalistic, scientific, etc. In addition, fiction, like other types of art, combines authored (including anonymous) works, in contrast to works of folklore that are fundamentally authorless.

The material carrier of the imagery of literary works is the word that has received written embodiment ( lat. littera - letter). A word (including an artistic one) always means something and has an objective character. Literature, in other words, belongs to the group fine arts , V in a broad sense substantive, where individual phenomena are recreated (persons, events, things, moods caused by something and impulses of people directed towards something). In this respect, it is similar to painting and sculpture (in their dominant, “figurative” variety) and differs from the non-figurative, non-objective arts. The latter are usually called expressive, is imprinted in them general character experiences outside of its direct connections with any objects, facts, events. These are music, dance (if it does not turn into pantomime - into the depiction of action through body movements), ornament, so-called abstract painting, architecture.

Literature on childbirth

E?pos(Ancient Greek ?πος - “word”, “narration”) - a narrative about events supposed in the past (as if they had happened and are remembered by the narrator). Epic works describe objective reality external to the author. The description of the characters is focused on their behavior and actions, and not on the inner world, as in the lyrics. Biography novels, very popular in the 19th century, are considered epic works. Examples include War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy, Red and Stendhal's Black, Galsworthy's Forsyte Saga and many others. The genre got its name from folk poems and songs composed in ancient times, also called epics.

Epic genres: fable, epic, ballad, myth, short story, story, short story, novel, epic novel, fairy tale, epic, artistic essay.

Lyrics- a type of literature that is based on an appeal to the sphere of the internal - to states of human consciousness, emotions, impressions, experiences. Even if there is a narrative element in the works, a lyrical work is always subjective and focused on the hero. The characteristics of a lyrical work are “conciseness”, “monologue”, “unity of the lyrical plot” and “instantaneity” (“precision”, “modernity”). Most lyrical works relate to poetry.

Lyrical genres: ode, message, stanzas, elegy, epigram, madrigal, eclogue, epitaph.

Drama- a type of literature that primarily reproduces the world external to the author - actions, relationships between people, conflicts, but unlike the epic, it has not a narrative, but a dialogical form. In dramatic works, the text on behalf of the author is episodic in nature, mostly limited to stage directions and explanations of the plot. Most dramatic works are written for subsequent production in the theater.

Dramatic genres: drama, comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy, vaudeville, farce, melodrama.

Types of text by structure

Prose

Prose is considered to be a literary text in which a separate rhythm, independent of speech, does not invade the linguistic fabric and does not affect the content. However, it is known whole line borderline phenomena: many prose writers deliberately give their works some signs of poetry (one can mention the highly rhythmic prose of Andrei Bely or the rhymed fragments in Vladimir Nabokov’s novel “The Gift”). The exact boundaries between prose and poetry have been an ongoing debate among literary scholars from different countries over the last century.

Prose is widely used in fiction - when creating novels, short stories etc. Individual examples of such works have been known for many centuries, but they developed into an independent form of literary works relatively recently.

Novel- the most popular variety modern prose(however, a novel in verse is also known in literature) - is a fairly long narrative, covering a significant period in the life of one or several characters and describing this period in great detail. As a widespread genre, novels appeared relatively late, although they already took shape in late antiquity. antique novel, in many ways close in structure and tasks to modern ones. Among the early classic examples of the European novel are Gargantua and Pantagruel (1533-1546) by François Rabelais and Don Quixote (1600) by Cervantes. In Asian literature, earlier works are close to the novel in the modern sense - for example, the Chinese classic novel “The Three Kingdoms” or the Japanese “Genji Monogatari” (“The Tale of Prince Genji”).

In Europe, early novels were not considered serious literature; their creation seemed not at all difficult. Later, however, it became clear that prose can provide aesthetic pleasure without the use of poetic techniques. In addition, the absence of rigid boundaries of poetry allows authors to focus more deeply on the content of the work, to work more fully with the details of the plot, in fact, more fully than can be expected even from narratives in poetic form. This freedom also allows authors to experiment with different styles within the same work.

Poetry

In general, a poem is a literary work that has a special rhythmic structure that does not follow from the natural rhythm of the language. The nature of this rhythm may be different depending on the properties of the language itself: for example, for languages in which great importance has a difference in vowel sounds by length (such as the ancient Greek language), it is natural for the emergence of a poetic rhythm built on the ordering of syllables based on length/shortness, and for languages in which vowels differ not in length, but in the force of exhalation (the vast majority of modern European languages structured exactly like this), it is natural to use a poetic rhythm that arranges syllables according to stressed/unstressed. This is how different systems of versification arise.

For the Russian ear, the familiar appearance of a poem is associated with the syllabic-tonic rhythm and the presence of rhyme in the poem, but neither one nor the other is actually a necessary feature of poetry that distinguishes it from prose. In general, the role of rhythm in a poem is not only to give the text a peculiar musicality, but also to the impact that this rhythm has on the meaning: thanks to the rhythm, some words and expressions (for example, those that appear at the end of a poetic line, rhymed) are highlighted in the poetic speech , accented.

Poetic speech, earlier than prosaic speech, was recognized as a special phenomenon characteristic of a literary text and distinguishing it from ordinary everyday speech. The first known literary works - for the most part, ancient epics (for example, the Sumerian "Tale of Gilgamesh", dating back to about 2200-3000 BC) - are poetic texts. At the same time, the poetic form is not necessarily associated with artistry: the formal features of poetry help it perform a mnemonic function, and therefore different time Scientific, legal, genealogical, and pedagogical works in poetry were common in different cultures.

Artistic methods and directions

Baroque is a movement characterized by a combination of realistic descriptions with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, rich rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, and oxymorons were widely used. Baroque literature is characterized by a desire for diversity, a summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedicism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a desire to study existence in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity).
Classicism is a movement whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres—fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), and comedy (Molière)—also achieved high development.
Sentimentalism is a movement that emphasizes the reader's perception, that is, the sensuality that arises when reading them, and is characterized by a tendency toward idealization and moralizing.
Romanticism is a multifaceted movement characterized by an interest in the sublime, folklore, mysticism, travel, the elements, and the theme of good and evil.
Realism is a direction in literature that most truthfully and impartially describes the real world, focused on describing destinies, circumstances and events that are close to real.
Naturalism - late stage development of realism in literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Writers strove for the most dispassionate and objective reproduction of reality using literary “protocol” methods, to transform novels into a document about the state of society in a certain place and time. The publication of many works was accompanied by scandals, since naturalists did not hesitate to openly record the life of dirty slums, hot spots and brothels - those places that were not customary to be depicted in earlier literature. Man and his actions were understood as determined by physiological nature, heredity and environment - social conditions, everyday and material environment.
Symbolism is the direction in which the symbol becomes the main element. Symbolism is characterized by an experimental nature, a desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism and a wide range of influences. Symbolists used understatement, hints, mystery, enigma. The main mood captured by the Symbolists was pessimism, reaching the point of despair. Everything “natural” appeared only as an “appearance”, without independent artistic significance.
Avant-garde - ambiguous term, characterizing a way of expression that is anti-traditional in form.
Modernism is a set of trends in literature of the first half of the 20th century. Associated with concepts such as stream of consciousness, lost generation.
Socialist realism - a direction in literature Soviet Union and the countries of the Social Commonwealth, which was of a propaganda nature and supported by the authorities with the aim of ideologically educating the people and building communism. It ceased to exist after the fall of the Communist regime and the abolition of censorship.
Postmodernism is a direction in literature based on playing with meanings, irony, non-standard construction of texts, mixing genres and styles, and involving the reader in the creative process.

Artistic image

Speaking about the sign process in the composition of human life ( semiotics), experts identify three aspects of sign systems: 1) syntactics(relationship of signs to each other); 2) semantics(the relationship of a sign to what it denotes: the signifier to the signified); 3) pragmatics(the relationship of signs to those who operate with them and perceive them).

Signs are classified in a certain way. They are combined into three large groups:

indexical sign (sign- index) indicates an object, but does not characterize it; it is based on the metonymic principle of contiguity (smoke as evidence of a fire, a skull as a warning of danger to life);
sign- symbol is conditional, here the signifier has neither similarity nor connection with the signified, such as words of natural language (except onomatopoeic ones) or components of mathematical formulas;
Iconic signs reproduce certain qualities of the signified or its holistic appearance and, as a rule, are visual. In the series of iconic signs they differ, firstly, diagrams- schematic recreations of an objectivity that is not entirely specific (graphic designation of the development of industry or the evolution of fertility) and, secondly, images that adequately recreate the sensory properties of the designated single object (photographs, reports, as well as capturing the fruits of observation and fiction in works of art).

Thus, the concept of “sign” did not abolish traditional ideas about image and figurativeness, but placed these ideas in a new, very broad semantic context. The concept of a sign, vital in the science of language, is also significant for literary studies: firstly, in the field of studying the verbal fabric of works, and secondly, when referring to the forms of behavior of characters.

Fiction

Fiction in the early stages of the development of art, as a rule, was not realized: the archaic consciousness did not distinguish between historical and artistic truth. But already in folk tales, which never present themselves as a mirror of reality, conscious fiction is quite clearly expressed. We find judgments about artistic fiction in Aristotle’s “Poetics” (chapter 9 - the historian talks about what happened, the poet talks about the possible, about what could happen), as well as in the works of philosophers of the Hellenistic era.

For a number of centuries, fiction has been a part of literary works as a public property, as inherited by writers from their predecessors. Most often, these were traditional characters and plots, which were somehow transformed each time (this was the case, in particular, in the drama of the Renaissance and classicism, which widely used ancient and medieval plots).

Much more than was the case before, fiction manifested itself as the individual property of the author in the era of romanticism, when imagination and fantasy were recognized as the most important facet of human existence.

In the post-romantic era, fiction somewhat narrowed its scope. Flights of imagination of writers of the 19th century. often preferred direct observation of life: characters and plots were close to their prototypes. According to N.S. Leskova, real writer- this is a “note-taker”, not an inventor: “Where a writer ceases to be a note-taker and becomes an inventor, all connection between him and society disappears.” Let us also recall Dostoevsky’s well-known judgment that a close eye is capable of detecting in the most ordinary fact “a depth that is not found in Shakespeare.” Russian classical literature was more a literature of conjecture than of fiction as such. At the beginning of the 20th century. fiction was sometimes regarded as something outdated and rejected in the name of recreating a real fact that was documented. This extreme has been disputed. The literature of our century—as before—relies widely on both fiction and non-fictional events and persons. At the same time, the rejection of fiction in the name of following the truth of the fact, in some cases justified and fruitful, can hardly become the main road artistic creativity: Without relying on fictional images, art and, in particular, literature are unrepresentable.

Concept fiction clarifies the boundaries (sometimes very vague) between works that claim to be art and documentary information. If documentary texts (verbal and visual) exclude the possibility of fiction from the outset, then works with the intention of perceiving them as fiction readily allow it (even in cases where the authors limit themselves to recreating actual facts, events, and persons). Messages in literary texts are, as it were, on the other side of truth and lies. At the same time, the phenomenon of artistry can also arise when perceiving a text created with a documentary mindset: “... for this it is enough to say that we are not interested in the truth of this story, that we read it “as if it were the fruit<…>writing."

At the same time, there are two trends in artistic imagery, which are designated by the terms convention(the author’s emphasis on non-identity, or even opposition, between what is depicted and the forms of reality) and lifelikeness(leveling such differences, creating the illusion of the identity of art and life).

Literature as the art of words

Fiction is a multifaceted phenomenon. There are two main sides in its composition. The first is fictitious objectivity, images of “non-verbal” reality, as discussed above. The second is speech constructions themselves, verbal structures. The dual aspect of literary works has given scientists reason to say that literary literature combines two different arts: the art of fiction (manifested mainly in fictional prose, which is relatively easily translated into other languages) and the art of words as such (which determines the appearance of poetry, which is losing its translations are perhaps the most important thing).

The actual verbal aspect of literature, in turn, is two-dimensional. Speech here appears, firstly, as a means of representation (a material carrier of imagery), as a way of evaluative illumination of non-verbal reality; and secondly, as subject of the image- statements belonging to someone and characterizing someone. Literature, in other words, is capable of recreating the speech activity of people, and this particularly sharply distinguishes it from all other types of art. Only in literature, a person appears as a speaker, to which M.M. attached fundamental importance. Bakhtin: “The main feature of literature is that language here is not only a means of communication and expression-image, but also an object of image.” The scientist argued that “literature is not just the use of language, but its artistic knowledge” and that “the main problem of its study” is “the problem of the relationship between depicting and depicted speech.”

Literature and synthetic arts

Fiction belongs to the so-called simple, or one-piece arts based on one a material carrier of imagery (here it is the written word). At the same time, it is closely connected with the arts. synthetic(multi-component), combining several different carriers of imagery (these are architectural ensembles, “absorbing” sculpture and painting; theater and cinema in their leading varieties); vocal music and so on.

Historically, early syntheses were “a combination of rhythmic, orchestic (dance - V.Kh.) movements with song-music and elements of words.” But this was not art itself, but syncretic creativity(syncretism is unity, indivisibility, characterizing the original, undeveloped state of something). Syncretic creativity, on the basis of which, as shown by A.N. Veselovsky, later verbal art (epic, lyric, drama) was formed, had the form of a ritual choir and had a mythological, cult and magical function. In ritual syncretism there was no separation between the actors and the perceivers. Everyone was both co-creators and participants-performers of the action being performed. Round dancing “pre-art” for archaic tribes and early states was ritually obligatory (forced). According to Plato, “everyone must sing and dance, the entire state as a whole, and, moreover, always in a variety of ways, incessantly and enthusiastically.”

As artistic creativity as such became stronger, single-component arts became increasingly important. The undivided dominance of synthetic works did not satisfy humanity, since it did not create the prerequisites for the free and wide manifestation of the artist’s individual creative impulse: each individual type of art within the synthetic works remained constrained in its capabilities. It is not surprising, therefore, that the centuries-old history of culture is associated with a steady differentiation forms artistic activity.

At the same time, in the 19th century. and at the beginning of the 20th century, another, opposite trend repeatedly made itself felt: the German romantics (Novalis, Wackenroder), and later R. Wagner, Vyach. Ivanov, A.N. Scriabin made attempts to return art to its original syntheses. Thus, Wagner in his book “Opera and Drama” regarded the departure from early historical syntheses as the fall of art and advocated a return to them. He spoke of the enormous difference between “individual types of art,” egoistically separated, limited in their appeal only to the imagination, and “true art,” addressed “to the sensory organism in its entirety” and combining various types of art.

But such attempts at a radical restructuring of artistic creativity were not successful: single-component arts remained the undeniable value of artistic culture and its dominant feature. At the beginning of our century, it was said, not without reason, that “synthetic quests<…>take beyond borders not only individual arts, but also art in general."

Literature has two forms of existence: it exists both as a single-component art (in the form of readable works), and as an invaluable component of synthetic arts. This applies to the greatest extent to dramatic works, which are inherently intended for the theater. But other types of literature are also involved in syntheses of the arts: lyrics come into contact with music (song, romance), going beyond the boundaries of book existence. Lyrical works readily interpreted by actors-readers and directors (when creating stage compositions). Narrative prose also finds its way onto stage and screen. And the books themselves often appear as synthetic works of art: the writing of letters (especially in old handwritten texts), ornaments, and illustrations are also significant in their composition. By participating in artistic syntheses, literature provides other types of art (primarily theater and cinema) with rich food , proving to be the most generous of them and acting as a conductor of the arts.

Literature and Mass Communications

IN different eras preference was given various types art. In antiquity, sculpture was most influential; as part of the aesthetics of the Renaissance and the 17th century. the experience of painting dominated, which theorists usually preferred to poetry; in line with this tradition is the treatise of the early French enlightener J.-B. Dubos, who believed that “the power of Painting over people is stronger than the power of Poetry.”

Subsequently (in the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century), literature moved to the forefront of art, and accordingly there was a shift in theory. Lessing in his Laocoon, in contrast to the traditional point of view, emphasized the advantages of poetry over painting and sculpture. According to Kant, “of all the arts, the first place is retained by poetry" With even greater energy, V.G. elevated verbal art above all others. Belinsky, who claims that poetry is the “highest kind of art”, that it “contains all the elements of other arts” and therefore “represents the entire integrity of art.”

In the era of romanticism, music shared the role of leader in the world of art with poetry. Later understanding of music as highest form artistic activity and culture as such (not without the influence of Beggars) became unprecedentedly widespread, especially in the aesthetics of the Symbolists. It is music, according to A.N. Scriabin and his like-minded people, is called upon to concentrate all other arts around itself, and ultimately to transform the world. The words of A.A. are significant. Blok (1909): “Music is the most perfect of the arts because it most expresses and reflects the Architect’s plan.”<…>Music creates the world. She is the spiritual body of the world<…>Poetry is exhaustible<…>since its atoms are imperfect - less mobile. Having reached its limit, poetry will probably drown in music.”

The 20th century (especially in its second half) was marked by serious shifts in the relationships between types of art. Art forms based on new means of mass communication emerged, strengthened and gained influence: they began to successfully compete with the written and printed word oral speech, sounding on the radio and, most importantly, the visual imagery of cinema and television.

In this regard, concepts emerged that, in relation to the first half of the century, can be rightfully called “film-centric”, and in the second half – “telecentric”. Known for his harsh, largely paradoxical judgments, television theorist M. McLuhan (Canada) argued in his books of the 60s that in the 20th century. a second communication revolution took place (the first was the invention of the printing press): thanks to television, which has unprecedented informational power, a “world of universal immediacy” arises, and our planet turns into a kind of huge village. The main thing is that television is gaining unprecedented ideological authority: the television screen powerfully imposes on the masses of viewers this or that view of reality.

In contrast to the extremes of traditional literary centrism and modern telecentrism, it is right to say that literary literature in our time is the first among equal arts.

In its best examples, literary creativity organically combines loyalty to the principles of artistry not only with broad knowledge and deep understanding of life, but also with the direct presence of the author’s generalizations. Thinkers of the 20th century argue that poetry is related to other arts as metaphysics is to science, that it, being the focus of interpersonal understanding, is close to philosophy. At the same time, literature is characterized as “the materialization of self-consciousness” and “the memory of the spirit about itself.” The performance of non-artistic functions by literature turns out to be especially significant in moments and periods when social conditions and political system unfavorable for society. “A people deprived of public freedom,” wrote A.I. Herzen, “literature is the only platform from the height of which he makes the cry of his indignation and his conscience heard.”

Without in any way claiming to stand above other types of art, much less to replace them, fiction thus occupies a special place in the culture of society and humanity as a kind of unity of art itself and intellectual activity, akin to the works of philosophers, scientists, humanists, publicists.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RK

KAZAKH UNIVERSITY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND WORLD LANGUAGES NAMED AFTER ABYLAI KHAN

Individual project

Specialty: foreign philology (RHF)

Discipline: Introduction to literary criticism

Completed by: Kibler Victoria

Checked by: Lyudinina O.E.

Almaty 2014

Introduction

Literature as the art of words

Spatial and temporal arts

Homer's techniques for “translating” “language” spatial arts into the "language" of poetry"

The creative process of a writer

Semantics of terms denoting forms of human presence in a literary work

Introduction

literature spatial creative term

Literature works with words - its main difference from other arts. The meaning of the word was given back in the Gospel - a divine idea of the essence of the word. The word is the main element of literature, the connection between the material and the spiritual. A word is perceived as the sum of the meanings that culture has given it. Through the word it is carried out with the general in world culture. Visual culture is that which can be perceived visually. Verbal culture - more consistent with human needs - the word, the work of thought, the formation of personality (the world of spiritual entities). There are areas of culture that do not require serious consideration. There is literature at depth that requires a deep relationship and experience. Works of literature are a deep awakening internal forces person different ways, because literature has material.

Literature as the art of words

The language of fiction contains a huge aesthetic principle, therefore the author of a work of fiction determines the speech norm and is the creator of the language. Artistic speech absorbs the most different shapes speech activity. For many centuries, the language of fiction was determined by the rules of rhetoric and oratory. Speech (including written) had to be convincing and impressive; hence the characteristic speech techniques - numerous repetitions, “embellishments”, emotionally charged words, rhetorical(!) questions, etc. Authors competed in eloquence, stylistics were determined by increasingly strict rules, and the literary works themselves were often filled with sacred meaning(especially in the Middle Ages). As a result, to XVII century(the era of classicism) literature turned out to be accessible and understandable to a rather narrow circle of educated people. Colloquial speech is associated with the communication of people in their private lives, therefore it is simple and free from regulation. In the XIX - XX centuries. Literature in general is perceived by writers and scientists as a unique form of conversation between the author and the reader; it is not without reason that the address “my dear reader” is associated primarily with this era. Artistic speech often also includes written forms of non-fiction speech (for example, diaries or memoirs); it easily allows deviations from language norm and carries out innovations in the sphere of speech activity (let us recall, for example, the word creation of Russian futurists). Today in works of art you can find the most modern forms speech activity - SMS quotes, excerpts from emails and much more. Moreover, they are often mixed different types arts: literature and painting/architecture, literature and music, etc. Imagery of speech is very often achieved through the use of words in a figurative meaning. For example: work is in full swing. The words that the writer uses in a figurative sense are called tropes (this is a Greek word translated as “image, turn, turn”). Among the tropes, the most frequently encountered and used are: Epitaphs, Similes, Metaphors. METAPHOR - the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in other words - an unnamed comparison). A metaphor creates an image that is conveyed to the reader or listener. The term “literature” also refers to any works of human thought that are enshrined in the written word and have social significance. Literature is distinguished between technical, scientific, journalistic, reference, epistolary, etc. However, in the usual and more strict sense, literature refers to works of artistic writing.

Spatial and temporal arts

If you plunge headlong into modern art history literature and try to independently identify all the types of art that humanity has created over all the years of its development, you will very soon come to the conclusion that this is a very difficult and ambiguous question. You will be surprised to find out that in the modern art history literature of the world there is no description of a single and undoubted, not to mention criticism, scheme or system of classification of types of art.

To address the issue of spatio-temporal forms of art, it is necessary to understand the classification of types of art. All species differ in specific ways of displaying the world and the senses used for perception. It is by these characteristics that it is determined which of the three types of groups of the classical classification a particular species fits:

1) The group of spatial arts - it is also static, perceived by sight, works from this group have a clear connection between the disclosure of the artistic image and the spatial structure. This group includes: architecture, photography, painting, sculpture. They are called spatial types of art because for this group of arts spatial construction is essential in the disclosure of various artistic images.

2) The group of temporary arts - it is also dynamic, perceived by the ear (not in all cases), they are called arts because in them the composition unfolding over time to reveal the image acquires key importance. This group includes: literature and music.

3) The group of spatio-temporal arts - it is also synthetic, perceived simultaneously by hearing and sight, they are called because they simultaneously profess both spatial and temporal priorities in revealing the image. Spatiotemporal forms of art are sometimes called spectacular or synthetic. These include: cinema, theater, choreography.

The significant difference between the types of arts and the need for their existence is caused by the fact that not one of them has its own own funds cannot give an artistic, comprehensive picture of the world. Such a picture of the world can only be created by the entire art culture man as a creator true art- art, which in turn consists of individual species arts

Homer's techniques for "translating" the "language" of spatial arts into the "language" of poetry"

Without touching here on the question of how successful a poet can be in depicting bodily beauty, we can, however, consider the following statement to be an indisputable truth. Since the entire boundless area of perfection is open to the poet for imitation, the outer, outer shell, in the presence of which perfection becomes beauty in sculpture, can only be for him one of the most insignificant means of awakening in us interest in his images.

In Homer there are two types of creatures and actions: visible and invisible. Painting cannot allow this difference: for it everything is visible, and visible in the same way.

If it is true that painting, in its imitations of reality, uses means and signs completely different from the means and signs of poetry, namely: painting - bodies and colors taken in space, poetry - articulate sounds perceived in time - if it is indisputable, that the means of expression must be in close connection with the expression, it follows that the signs of expression located next to each other should denote only such objects or such parts of them that in reality appear located next to each other; on the contrary, signs of expression following each other can only designate such objects or such parts of them as actually appear to us in a temporal sequence.

In works of painting, where everything is given only simultaneously, in coexistence, only one moment of action can be depicted, and therefore it is necessary to choose the most significant moment, from which both the previous and subsequent moments would become clear.

I find that Homer does not depict anything other than sequential actions, and he draws all individual objects only to the extent of their participation in the action, and usually no more than one line. Is it surprising if the painter sees little or no business for himself where Homer paints?

To characterize each thing, as I said, Homer uses only one trait. A ship for him is either a black ship, or a full ship, or fast ship, or - at most - a well-equipped black ship. IN further description Homer does not enter the ship. If special circumstances sometimes force Homer to stop our attention longer on some material object, then this still does not result in a picture that a painter could reproduce with his brush; on the contrary, with the help of countless techniques, he knows how to break the image of this object into a whole series of moments, in each of which the object appears in a new form, while the painter must wait for the last of these moments in order to show in a finished form what we saw appearing from the poet. So, for example, if Homer wants to tell how Agamemnon was dressed, he makes him put on before our eyes one piece of clothing after another: a soft tunic, a wide cloak, beautiful sandals, a sword. Only after getting dressed, the king takes the scepter. Instead of a picture of the scepter, he tells us its history. We first see him in Vulcan's workshop; then it shines in the hands of Jupiter, then it is a sign of the dignity of Mercury; then it serves as a commanding staff in the hands of the warlike Pelops, a shepherd’s staff in Atreus, etc.

Thus, I finally become acquainted with this scepter better than if the poet had placed it before my eyes or Vulcan himself had handed it to me.

Since verbal designations are arbitrary designations, we can use them to list sequentially all the parts of an object that actually appear before us in space. But such a property is only one of the properties belonging to speech in general and the designations it uses, from which it does not yet follow that it is especially suitable for the needs of poetry. The poet cares not only about being understandable, his images must not only be clear and distinct - the prose writer is also satisfied with this. It is in this sense that we explained above the concept of a poetic picture. But a poet must paint constantly. Descriptions of material objects, excluded from the realm of poetry, are therefore quite appropriate where there is no question of poetic illusion, where the writer addresses only the minds of the readers and deals only with clear and, if possible, complete concepts.

The creative process of a writer

“The secret of writing lies in the eternal and involuntary music in the soul. If it is not there, a person can only “pretend to be a writer.”

Different people are predisposed to artistic creativity to varying degrees: ability - giftedness - talent - genius. An artist who is on a higher rung of this creative ladder retains those qualities that are inherent in those who are located on its lower steps, but must certainly have a number of additional high qualities.

Capabilities An artist, according to the American psychologist Guilford, involves six inclinations: fluency of thinking, associativity, expressiveness, the ability to switch from one class of objects to another, adaptive flexibility, and the ability to give the artistic form the necessary outlines. Abilities ensure the creation of artistic values of public interest.

Giftedness presupposes acute attention to life, the ability to choose objects of attention, to consolidate in memory the theme of associations and connections dictated by the creative imagination. An artistically gifted person creates works that have lasting significance for of a given society for a significant period of its development. Giftedness is the ability to focus attention on objects worthy of selective attention, to extract impressions from memory and include them in a system of associations and connections dictated by the creative imagination.

Talent begets artistic values, having enduring national and sometimes universal significance. "Most people prefer the middle ground between mediocrity and genius - talent. Not everyone wants to exchange their whole life for art. And how many times does a genius, at the end of his career, repent of his choice! "It was better not to surprise the world and live in this world" - says Ibsen in his last drama." (Shestov. 1991).

Genius fully expressing the essence of its time, most often it does not seem to fit into its era. He, one might say, pulls the thread of tradition from the past to the future and therefore part of his work belongs to the past and part to the future. And only mediocre contemporaries see only what is in the genius of the present, and even then they see incompletely. Genius creates the highest human values, having significance for all time. The artist’s genius is manifested both in the power of perception of the world and in the depth of his impact on humanity. However, artistic genius is not a form of mental pathology and, according to Gogol’s fair judgment, “art is the introduction into the soul of harmony and order, and not confusion and disorder.” . This applies both to the impact of the work on the public and to the process of artistic creation.

2. Artistic creativity as a specific activity

Artistic creativity is a mysterious process. I. Kant said: “... Newton could imagine all his steps, which he had to take from the first principles of geometry to his great and deep discoveries, as completely clear not only to himself, but also to everyone else, and to designate them for succession; but no Homer or Wieland cannot show how ideas full of fantasy and at the same time rich in thoughts appear and are combined in his head, because he himself does not know this and, therefore, cannot teach this to anyone else. So, in the scientific field, the greatest inventor differs from. a pathetic imitator and student only in degree, whereas he differs specifically from the one whom nature has endowed with the ability for the fine arts." (Kant. T. 5. pp. 324-325).

3. Creativity as the embodiment of a plan

The creative process begins with an idea. The latter is the result of the perception of life phenomena and their understanding by a person on the basis of his deepest individual characteristics(degree of talent, experience, general cultural preparation). The paradox of artistic creativity: it begins with the end, or rather, its end is inextricably linked with the beginning. An artist “thinks” as a viewer, a writer as a reader. The plan contains not only the writer’s attitude and his vision of the world, but also the final link in the creative process - the reader. The writer at least intuitively “plans” the artistic impact and post-reception activity of the reader. The purpose of artistic communication with feedback affects its initial link - the idea.

1) The idea is characterized by lack of formality and, at the same time, semiotically unformed semantic certainty, outlining the outlines of the theme and idea of the work. In the plan “it is still unclear through the magic crystal” (Pushkin), the features of the future literary text are distinguished.

2) The idea is formed first in the form of intonational “noise”, embodying an emotional-value attitude towards the topic, and in the form of the outlines of the topic itself in a non-verbal (= intonational) form. 3) The idea has the potential for symbolic expression, fixation and embodiment in images. Factor generating artistic design in its unique originality, - creativity (the creative deep layer of the personality), the center of creativity, a certain creative core of the personality, which determines the invariant of all artistic decisions. Everything created by the artist is grouped around this center (See: Rozanov. 1990. P. 39). In the writer's work there are invariants determined by the deep generative layer of his spiritual world. The writer creates his own artistic world. Moreover, each poet is distinguished by his own vision of reality, manifested in every cell of his texts.

Creativity is the process of translating an idea into a sign system and a system of images growing on its basis, the process of objectifying a thought in a text, the process of alienating an idea from the artist and transmitting it through the work to the reader, viewer, listener.

4. Artisticcreativity - creation

unpredictable artistic reality

Art does not repeat life (as reflected in the theory of reflection), but creates a special reality. Artistic reality It may be parallel to history, but it is never its cast, its copy.

“Art is different from life in that it always runs repetitive. In everyday life, you can tell the same joke three times and three times, causing laughter, and turn out to be the soul of society. In art, this form of behavior is called “cliché.” Art is a recoilless weapon, and its development is determined by the dynamics and logic of the material itself, the previous fate of the means that require finding (or prompting) each time a qualitatively new aesthetic solution

5. Psychological mechanisms of artistic creativity

Jung believed that psychology could be connected with aesthetics. There is a border zone between these sciences - the psychology of art (the psychology of creativity and the psychology of perception).

Artistic creativity begins with keen attention to the life of the world and involves "rare impressions" (Goethe), the ability to retain them in memory and comprehend them.

Memory - psychological factor of creativity. For the artist, it is not mirror-like, but selective and wears creative character. The painter Falk ordered his students to memorize impressions of nature and then write sketches from memory. It is known what importance memory had in Proust’s work. Believing that reality is artistically formed precisely in memory, he resurrected the past and then captured the memories in the work.

Imagination combines and creatively reproduces blocks of ideas, impressions and images stored in memory, combines and draws living pictures in the artist’s mind, which he records in an artistic text. Thanks to imagination, living pictures appear in the artist’s mind. Imagination has many varieties: phantasmagoric - in Hoffman, philosophical-lyrical - in Tyutchev, romantically sublime - in Vrubel, painfully hypertrophied - in Dali, full of mystery - in Bergman, realistically strict and grotesque - in Fellini. Creative imagination is fundamentally different from hallucination. According to Flaubert, when you hallucinate, you experience horror and feel that you are dying, but the fruits of the imagination bring joy and aesthetic pleasure.

Associations - thoughts or images that arise when seeing an object or when perceiving a statement; by establishing similarities, or by repulsion, through memory or finding analogies with the help of the subconscious; “roll calls” arising from contiguity, similarity and contrast between impressions of existence, leaps of imagination unpredictable by logic, comparing these impressions and unexpected combinations of phenomena far removed from each other. All stream of consciousness literature is based on associative thinking. Associations arise based on previous experience. The word by its nature is polysemantic, multivalent and provides the poet with the richest possibilities of associations. Not a single form of art can do without associations.

Inspiration - a specifically creative state of clarity of thought, intensity of its work, richness and speed of associations, deep insight into the essence life problems, a powerful “release” of life and artistic experience accumulated in the subconscious and its direct inclusion in creativity, heightened virtuosity in the sense of form. Inspiration gives rise to extraordinary creative energy; it is almost synonymous with creativity. The winged horse Pegasus has been a symbol of poetry and inspiration since ancient times. Inspiration makes the creative process especially fruitful.

6. Consciousness and subconsciousness

Consciousness and subconsciousness are components of the creative process of creating a work. The important role of the subconscious in artistic thinking already led Plato and other ancient Greek philosophers to interpret creativity as an ecstatic, divinely inspired, bacchic state. For Homer, a rhapsode is a singer illuminated from above, and Pindar called the poet a prophet of the muses. The aesthetics of romanticism absolutized the role of the unconscious in creative process. Consciousness determines many essential aspects of creativity. It controls the goal, the ultimate task of creativity and the main contours of the artistic concept of the work, highlights the “bright spot” in creative thinking and organizes the artist’s entire experience around this light. The “bright spot” provides introspection and self-control of the artist, helps him to self-critically analyze, evaluate the draft and bring it to perfection. Consciousness helps the artist to carry out critical analysis of all your creativity and draw conclusions that will contribute to the further growth of mastery.

Ideas that pass from the subconscious to consciousness are not always correct, since in the subconscious there are no logical criteria for truth. It is beauty that is the criterion for the transfer of images from the subconscious to consciousness, where a strict check of the material received from the subconscious is carried out. Born by the subconscious, selected by an aesthetic feeling, the image enters consciousness. Here it is logically verified, enlightened by reason, processed (conjectured, justified, connected With cultural fund and is enriched by it). So first aesthetic feeling(at the level of intuition), then strict logic (at the level of consciousness) produce a “natural selection” from a variety of ideas and images. Only the most beautiful and true ones “survive”. The transition from the subconscious to the conscious is associated with a huge creative increase. An idea or image, logically verified by the mind, deepens and receives its completeness.

Semantics of terms,denoting forms of human presence in a literary work

In literary works, images of people, and in some cases their likenesses: humanized animals, plants and things (a fairy-tale hut on chicken legs) are invariably present and, as a rule, fall into the spotlight of readers' attention. There are different forms of human presence in literary works. This is a narrator-storyteller, a lyrical hero and character, capable of revealing a person with utmost fullness and breadth. This term is taken from French and is of Latin origin. The word “persona” was used by the ancient Romans to denote the mask worn by the actor, and later to the image depicted in work of art face. The phrases “literary hero” and “ actor" However, these expressions also carry additional meanings: the word “hero” emphasizes the positive role, brightness, unusualness, and exclusivity of the person depicted, and the phrase “character” refers to the fact that the character manifests himself primarily in the performance of actions.

A character is either the fruit of the writer’s pure invention (Gulliver and the Lilliputians by J. Swift; Major Kovalev, who lost his nose, by N.V. Gogol) or the result of conjecture on the appearance of a real-life person (whether historical figures or people biographically close to the writer, or even himself); or, finally, the result of processing and completing already known literary heroes, such as, say, Don Juan or Faust. Along with literary heroes as human individuals, sometimes group, collective characters turn out to be very significant (the crowd in the square in several scenes of “Boris Godunov” by A. S. Pushkin, testifying to and expressing the people’s opinion).

The character seems to have a dual nature. Firstly, he is the subject of the depicted action, the stimulus for the unfolding of events that make up the plot. Secondly, and this is perhaps the main thing, the character has an independent significance in the composition of the work, independent of the plot (event series): he acts as a bearer of stable and stable (sometimes, however, undergoing changes) properties, traits, qualities.

Characters are characterized by the actions they perform (almost primarily), as well as by forms of behavior and communication (for it is not only the What a person does, but also that How he behaves at the same time), features of appearance and close surroundings (in particular, things belonging to the hero), thoughts, feelings, intentions. And all these manifestations of man in a literary work have a certain resultant - a kind of center, which M.M. Bakhtin called core personality, A.A. Ukhtomsky - dominant, determined starting intuitions person. The phrase is widely used to denote the stable core of people’s consciousness and behavior value orientation. Value orientations (they can also be called life positions) are very heterogeneous and multifaceted. The consciousness and behavior of people can be directed towards religious and moral, strictly moral, cognitive, and aesthetic values. They are also associated with the sphere of instincts, with bodily life and the satisfaction of physical needs, with the desire for fame, authority, and power.

Author invariably expresses his attitude to the position, attitudes, value orientation your character. At the same time, the image of the character appears as the embodiment of the writer’s concept, idea, i.e. as something whole within the framework of another, broader, actually artistic integrity(works). He depends on this integrity; one might say, he serves it at the will of the author. With any serious development of the character sphere of the work, the reader inevitably penetrates into spiritual world author: in the images of heroes he sees the creative will of the writer. The author's attitude towards the hero can be predominantly either alienated or related, but not neutral. Writers have repeatedly spoken about the closeness or alienness of their characters. In literary works, one way or another there is a distance between the character and the author. It occurs even in the autobiographical genre, where the writer, from a certain temporary distance, comprehends his own life experience. The author can look at his hero as if from the bottom up (the lives of the saints), or, on the contrary, from the top down (works of an accusatory and satirical nature). But the most deeply rooted in literature (especially of recent centuries) is the situation of essential equality of writer and character (but not identity).

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1.2. Oral folk art and literature. Genres unt.

1.3. Artistic image. Artistic time and space.

Artistic image is not only an image of a person (the image of Tatyana Larina, Andrei Bolkonsky, Raskolnikov, etc.) - it is a picture of human life, in the center of which stands a specific person, but which includes everything that surrounds him in life. Thus, in a work of art a person is depicted in relationships with other people. Therefore, here we can talk not about one image, but about many images.

Any image is an inner world that has come into the focus of consciousness. Outside of images there is no reflection of reality, no imagination, no knowledge, no creativity. The image can take sensual and rational forms. The image can be based on a person’s fiction, or it can be factual. Artistic image objectified in the form of both the whole and its individual parts.

Artistic image can expressively influence feelings and mind.

It provides the maximum capacity of content, is capable of expressing the infinite through the finite, it is reproduced and evaluated as a kind of whole, even if created with the help of several details. The image may be sketchy, unspoken.

As an example of an artistic image, one can cite the image of the landowner Korobochka from Gogol’s novel “Dead Souls”. She was an elderly woman, thrifty, collecting all sorts of rubbish. The box is extremely stupid and slow to think. However, she knows how to trade and is afraid to sell things short. This petty thrift and commercial efficiency puts Nastasya Petrovna above Manilov, who has no enthusiasm and who knows neither good nor evil. The landowner is very kind and caring. When Chichikov visited her, she treated him to pancakes, unleavened pie with eggs, mushrooms, and flatbreads. She even offered to scratch her guest's heels at night.

The dual aspect of literary works has given scientists reason to say that literary literature combines two different arts: the art of fiction (manifested mainly in fictional prose, which is relatively easily translated into other languages) and the art of words as such (which determines the appearance of poetry, which is losing its translations are perhaps the most important thing). In our opinion, fiction and the actual verbal principle would be more accurately characterized not as two different arts, but as two inseparable facets of one phenomenon: artistic literature.

Only in literature does a person appear as a speaker, to which M.M. attached fundamental importance. Bakhtin: “The main feature of literature is that language here is not only a means of communication and expression-image, but also an object of image.” The scientist argued that “literature is not simply the use of language, but its artistic cognition” and that “the main problem of its study” is “the problem of the relationship between depicting and depicted speech.”

As you can see, the imagery of a literary work is two-dimensional and its text constitutes the unity of two “unbreakable lines.” This is, firstly, a chain of verbal designations of “non-verbal” reality and, secondly, a series of statements belonging to someone (narrator, lyrical hero, characters), thanks to which literature directly masters the thinking processes of people and their emotions, widely captures their spiritual ( including intellectual) communication, is not given to other, “non-verbal” arts.

In literary works, characters often reflect on philosophical, social, moral, religious, historical topics. Sometimes the intellectual side of human life comes to the fore here (the famous ancient Indian “Bhagavad Gita”, “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky, “The Magic Mountain” by T. Mann).

Mastering human consciousness, fiction, according to V.A. Grekhnev, “enlarges the element of thought”: the writer “is irresistibly attracted by thought, but a thought that is not chilled and not detached from experience and evaluation, but thoroughly permeated by them. It is not its results revealed in objectively calm and harmonious structures of logic, but its personal flavor, its living energy - first of all, this is attractive to the artist of words where thought becomes the subject of depiction.”

V.E. Khalizev Theory of literature. 1999

Why literature is called the art of words briefly. Introduction. Fiction as the art of words

Literature on childbirth

Types of text by structure

Artistic methods and directions

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Literature as the art of words

Literature and synthetic arts

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