Realism is a trend in literature and art that aims to faithfully reproduce reality in its typical features Oh. The dominance of realism followed the era of Romanticism and preceded Symbolism.
1. At the center of the work of realists is objective reality. In its refraction through the worldview of art. 2. The author subjects life material to philosophical processing. 3. The ideal is reality itself. The beautiful thing is life itself. 4. Realists approach synthesis through analysis.
5. The principle of the typical: Typical hero, specific time, typical circumstances
6. Identification of cause-and-effect relationships. 7. The principle of historicism. Realists turn to the problems of the present. The present is the convergence of past and future. 8. The principle of democracy and humanism. 9. The principle of objectivity of the story. 10. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate
11. psychologism
12. .. The development of poetry is somewhat calming down 13. The novel is the leading genre.
13. Heightened social-critical pathos is one of the main features of Russian realism - for example, “The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol
14. The main feature of realism as a creative method is the increased attention to the social side of reality.
15. The images of a realistic work reflect general laws existence, not living people. Any image is woven from typical traits manifested in typical circumstances. This is the paradox of art. An image cannot be correlated with a living person; it is richer than a specific person - hence the objectivity of realism.
16. “The artist should not be a judge of his characters and what they say, but only an impartial witness
Realist writers
Late A. S. Pushkin is the founder of realism in Russian literature (the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” back in the 1820s - 1830s)
M. Yu. Lermontov (“Hero of Our Time”)
N. V. Gogol (“Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”)
I. A. Goncharov (“Oblomov”)
A. S. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”)
A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”)
N. G. Chernyshevsky (“What to do?”)
F. M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “White Nights”, “Humiliated and Insulted”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Demons”)
L. N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”).
I. S. Turgenev (“Rudin”, “The Noble Nest”, “Asya”, “Spring Waters”, “Fathers and Sons”, “New”, “On the Eve”, “Mu-mu”)
A. P. Chekhov (“The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”, “Student”, “Chameleon”, “The Seagull”, “Man in a Case”
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people. End of the 19th century - The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature. . Realism becomes, to a certain extent, a method of artistic cognition of reality. In the 40s, a “natural school” arose - the work of Gogol, he was a great innovator, discovering that even an insignificant event, such as the acquisition of an overcoat by a minor official, can become a significant event for understanding the most important issues of human existence.
"Natural School" became initial stage development of realism in Russian literature.
Topics: Life, customs, characters, events from the life of the lower classes became the object of study by “naturalists”. The leading genre was the “physiological essay,” which was based on accurate “photography” of the life of various classes.
In literature " natural school“The hero’s class position, his professional affiliation and the social function he performs decisively prevailed over his individual character.
Those who joined the “natural school” were: Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Goncharov, Panaev, Druzhinin and others.
The task of truthfully showing and exploring life presupposes in realism many techniques for depicting reality, which is why the works of Russian writers are so diverse in both form and content.
Realism as a method of depicting reality in the second half of the 19th century. received the name of critical realism, because its main task was the criticism of reality, the question of the relationship between man and society.
To what extent does society influence the fate of the hero? Who is to blame for a person being unhappy? What to do to change a person and the world? - these are the main questions of literature in general, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - in particular.
Psychologism - the characterization of a hero through the analysis of his inner world, consideration of the psychological processes through which a person’s self-awareness is realized and his attitude to the world is expressed - has become the leading method of Russian literature since the formation of the realistic style in it.
One of the remarkable features of Turgenev's works of the 50s was the appearance in them of a hero who embodied the idea of the unity of ideology and psychology.
Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, who at the end of the 19th century became the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature with new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deep layers
Turgenev is credited with creating literary types of ideologists - heroes, whose approach to personality and characterization of their inner world is in direct connection with the author’s assessment of their worldview and the socio-historical meaning of their philosophical concepts. The merging of the psychological, historical-typological and ideological aspects in Turgenev’s heroes is so complete that their names have become a common noun for a certain stage in the development of social thought, a certain social type representing a class in its historical state, and the psychological makeup of the individual (Rudin, Bazarov, Kirsanov , Mr. N. from the story “Asya” - “Russian man on rendez-vous”).
Dostoevsky's heroes are at the mercy of ideas. Like slaves, they follow her, expressing her self-development. Having “accepted” a certain system into their soul, they obey the laws of its logic, go through all the necessary stages of its growth with it, and bear the yoke of its reincarnations. Thus, Raskolnikov, whose concept grew out of rejection of social injustice and a passionate desire for good, passing through all its logical stages along with the idea that took possession of his entire being, accepts murder and justifies the tyranny of a strong personality over the voiceless masses. In lonely monologues-reflections, Raskolnikov “strengthens” in his idea, falls under its power, gets lost in its ominous vicious circle, and then, having completed the “experience” and suffering internal defeat, begins to feverishly seek dialogue, the possibility of jointly assessing the results of the experiment.
In Tolstoy, the system of ideas that the hero develops and develops in the course of his life is a form of his communication with the environment and is derived from his character, from the psychological and moral characteristics of his personality.
It can be argued that all three great Russian realists of the mid-century - Turgenev, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky - depict the mental and ideological life of a person as a social phenomenon and ultimately presuppose obligatory contact between people, without which the development of consciousness is impossible.
100 RUR bonus for first order
Select job type Graduate work Course work Abstract Master's thesis Practice report Article Report Review Test work Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions Creative work Essay Drawing Essays Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Master's thesis Laboratory work On-line help
Find out the price
Modern realism is an improved, complicated, new realism. The means and techniques are becoming more complex, but the basic principle of realism will remain unchanged - display real person in real objective circumstances, the influence of these circumstances on the formation of the character and behavior of the hero.
Features of realism: objectivity, typification, consideration of reality in development (historicism), a view of art as a means of understanding reality, the educational function of art. Realism of the second half of the twentieth century. returns to the old classical hero, while postmodernism includes him in intellectual game. The classic hero in realism is placed in new circumstances, usually existential, and described using new techniques from the arsenal of modernism and postmodernism. Also in modern realism, new methods of plotting are used, for example, the intersection of different time plans (in Faulkner’s prose). Realistic literature of the twentieth century. It is distinguished by the diversity and complexity of its content and increased intelligence. In addition, there is an appeal to myth (for example, Christa Wolf’s novels “Cassandra”, “Medea”); to the subconscious spheres of the psyche; science, mysticism; the use of conventional techniques, allegory, parables, symbolism, etc. Modern realists strive to explore all possibilities human soul, all the contradictory states in which a person can exist in modern society. But the realistic text not only shows these states and actions, but also makes an attempt to explain them for the sake of a humanistic, educational goal, to promote the understanding of man by man.
The main themes of realistic literature, first of all, depend on the era that realists strive to objectively describe, but no less important are “ eternal themes", because realistic literature is associated with didactic goals:
1. personality as a “super-myth of the twentieth century”; 2. search for spiritual support; 3.movement for civil rights people, especially women and national minorities (in America - “Negro literature”);
Genres: science fiction (Ray Bradbury, etc.); documentary genres (Norman Mailer); intellectual novel(Saul Bellow); a myth novel (John Updike's "Centaur"), a parable novel (William Faulkner's "Parable", 1954), a family novel (the novels of Herve Bazin).
In France - Herve Bazin, Robert Merle, Romain Gary.
In England - Graham Greene (with a predominance of postmodern aesthetics).
In Germany - Heinrich Bell, Siegfried Lenz.
In America - William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway.
In Japan - Kenzaburo Oe, Kobo Abe.
Neorealism. After World War II, neorealism appeared. In the narrowest understanding of the term, neorealism is a movement in Italian literature and art of the 40-50s. XX century A new form of critical realism that arose as a reaction to fascist ideology. The influence of M. Gorky, American prose of the 30s. (Hemingway, Faulkner). Fate is at the center of “neorealism” common man. Style and language – simplicity, restraint, clarity. Ideas – the desire for social justice and democracy.
Realism is a trend in literature and art that truthfully and realistically reflects the typical features of reality, in which there are no various distortions and exaggerations. This direction followed romanticism, and was the predecessor of symbolism.
This trend originated in the 30s of the 19th century and reached its peak in the middle of it. His followers sharply denied the use in literary works any sophisticated techniques, mystical trends and idealization of characters. Main feature this direction in literature - artistic representation real life with the help of ordinary and familiar images to readers, which for them are part of their Everyday life(relatives, neighbors or acquaintances).
(Alexey Yakovlevich Voloskov "At the tea table")
The works of realist writers are distinguished by their life-affirming beginning, even if their plot is characterized by tragic conflict. One of the main features of this genre is the authors’ attempt to consider surrounding reality in its development, discover and describe new psychological, public and social relationships.
Having replaced romanticism, realism has the characteristic features of an art that strives to find truth and justice, and wants to change the world for the better. The main characters in the works of realist authors make their discoveries and conclusions after much thought and deep introspection.
(Zhuravlev Firs Sergeevich "Before the Crown")
Critical realism develops almost simultaneously in Russia and Europe (approximately 30-40s of the 19th century) and soon emerges as leading direction in literature and art throughout the world.
In France, literary realism is primarily associated with the names of Balzac and Stendhal, in Russia with Pushkin and Gogol, in Germany with the names of Heine and Buchner. All of them experience the inevitable influence of romanticism in their literary work, but gradually move away from it, abandon the idealization of reality and move on to depicting a broader social background, where the lives of the main characters take place.
Realism in Russian literature of the 19th century
The main founder of Russian realism in the 19th century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. In his works “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Eugene Onegin”, “Belkin’s Tales”, “Boris Godunov”, “ Bronze Horseman“He subtly captures and skillfully conveys the very essence of all important events in the life of Russian society, presented by his talented pen in all its diversity, colorfulness and inconsistency. Following Pushkin, many writers of that time came to the genre of realism, deepening the analysis of the emotional experiences of their heroes and depicting their complex inner world (“Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov, “The Inspector General” and “ Dead Souls"Gogol).
(Pavel Fedotov "The Picky Bride")
The tense socio-political situation in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I aroused keen interest in the life and fate of common people among progressive public figures that time. This is noted in later works Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, as well as in the poetic lines of Alexei Koltsov and the works of the authors of the so-called “natural school”: I.S. Turgenev (cycle of stories “Notes of a Hunter”, stories “Fathers and Sons”, “Rudin”, “Asya”), F.M. Dostoevsky (" Poor people", "Crime and Punishment"), A.I. Herzen (“The Thieving Magpie”, “Who is to Blame?”), I.A. Goncharova (“Ordinary History”, “Oblomov”), A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, L.N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”), A.P. Chekhov (stories and plays “ The Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya").
Literary realism of the second half of the 19th century was called critical; the main task of his works was to highlight existing problems and address issues of interaction between man and the society in which he lives.
Realism in Russian literature of the 20th century
(Nikolai Petrovich Bogdanov-Belsky "Evening")
The turning point in the fate of Russian realism was the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when this direction was experiencing a crisis and a new phenomenon in culture loudly declared itself - symbolism. Then a new updated aesthetics of Russian realism arose, in which History itself and its global processes were now considered the main environment shaping a person’s personality. The realism of the early 20th century revealed the complexity of the formation of a person’s personality; it was formed under the influence not only social factors, the story itself acted as the creator of typical circumstances, under the aggressive influence of which the main character fell.
(Boris Kustodiev "Portrait of D.F. Bogoslovsky")
There are four main trends in realism of the early twentieth century:
- Critical: continues the traditions of classical realism of the mid-19th century. The works place emphasis on the social nature of phenomena (the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy);
- Socialist: displaying the historical and revolutionary development of real life, analyzing conflicts in conditions of class struggle, revealing the essence of the characters of the main characters and their actions committed for the benefit of others. (M. Gorky “Mother”, “The Life of Klim Samgin”, most of the works of Soviet authors).
- Mythological: display and rethinking of real life events through the prism of plots of famous myths and legends (L.N. Andreev “Judas Iscariot”);
- Naturalism: an extremely truthful, often unsightly, detailed depiction of reality (A.I. Kuprin “The Pit”, V.V. Veresaev “Notes of a Doctor”).
Realism in foreign literature of the 19th-20th centuries
The initial stage of the formation of critical realism in European countries in the mid-19th century is associated with the works of Balzac, Stendhal, Beranger, Flaubert, and Maupassant. Merimee in France, Dickens, Thackeray, Bronte, Gaskell - England, the poetry of Heine and other revolutionary poets - Germany. In these countries, in the 30s of the 19th century, tension grew between two irreconcilable class enemies: the bourgeoisie and the labor movement, and a period of rise in various fields bourgeois culture, a number of discoveries took place in natural science and biology. In countries where a pre-revolutionary situation developed (France, Germany, Hungary), the doctrine of the scientific socialism of Marx and Engels arose and developed.
(Julien Dupre "Return from the Fields")
As a result of complex creative and theoretical polemics with the followers of romanticism, critical realists took for themselves the best progressive ideas and traditions: interesting historical themes, democracy, trends in folklore, progressive critical pathos and humanistic ideals.
Realism of the early twentieth century, which survived the struggle of the best representatives of the “classics” of critical realism (Flaubert, Maupassant, France, Shaw, Rolland) with the trends of new non-realistic trends in literature and art (decadence, impressionism, naturalism, aestheticism, etc.) is acquiring new character traits. He addresses the social phenomena of real life, describes the social motivation of human character, reveals the psychology of the individual, the fate of art. The basis of modeling artistic reality philosophical ideas are laid down, the author's focus is primarily on the intellectually active perception of the work when reading it, and then on the emotional one. Classic example intellectual realistic novel are the works of the German writer Thomas Mann “The Magic Mountain” and “Confession of the Adventurer Felix Krull”, the dramaturgy of Bertolt Brecht.
(Robert Kohler "Strike")
In the works of realist authors of the twentieth century, the dramatic line intensifies and deepens, there is more tragedy (creativity American writer Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby", "Tender is the Night"), there is a special interest in inner world person. Attempts to depict the conscious and unconscious moments of a person’s life lead to the emergence of a new literary device, close to modernism called “stream of consciousness” (works by Anna Segers, W. Keppen, Yu. O’Neill). Naturalistic elements appear in the work of American realist writers such as Theodore Dreiser and John Steinbeck.
Realism of the 20th century has a bright, life-affirming color, faith in man and his strength, this is noticeable in the works of American realist writers William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Jack London, Mark Twain. The works of Romain Rolland, John Galsworthy, Bernard Shaw, and Erich Maria Remarque were very popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Realism continues to exist as a direction in modern literature and is one of the most important forms of democratic culture.
The main features of the philosophy and aesthetics of modernism:
1) an idealistic attitude towards reality - consciousness is recognized as primary;
2) the desire to create your own in works new reality, and not describe an existing one;
3) works, as a rule, do not recreate objects of reality, but those images that have already been created in world culture, with the aim of understanding them more deeply;
4) the main category of modernism becomes the concept of text, which is recognized supreme reality and is formed not through the reflection of objects of reality, but through the reproduction and comprehension of “cultivated” objects localized in predecessor texts;
5) extremely valuable for modernism is the idea of constructing a text as a “journey” through the labyrinths of a deeply individualized consciousness, often characterized by a pathological character;
6) technically complicated style of writing.
RUSSIAN MODERNISM OF THE LATE XIX – BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY
Currents, directions, schools
Russian modernism of the late XIX – early XX
Pre-symbolism
Symbolism
Poetry schools of the 10s.
I. Annensky
early K. Balmont
Elder symbolism
symbolism
futurism
Moscow school
St. Petersburg school
A. Bely A. Blok
S. Soloviev
M. Kuzmin
N. Gumilev
A. Akhmatova O. Mandel-shtam
V. Bryusov
K. Balmont
D. Merezhkovsky
Z. Gippius F. Sologub
D. Burliuk,
N. Burliuk,
E. Guro, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov
I. Severyanin
RUSSIAN REALISM OF THE END OF THE 19TH – EARLY 20TH CENTURIES
Typology
Russian realism of the late XIX - early XX
Classical
"Natural"
Philosophical-psychological
Heroic-romantic
Expressionistic
L.N. Tolstoy,
A.P. Chekhov
A.I. Kuprin,
V.V. Veresaev
I.A. Bunin
A.M. Bitter,
A.I. Serafimovich
L. Andreev
Literature:
1. Sokolov A.G.
2. History of Russian literature: in 10 T. – M.; L., 1954. T. 10.
3. History of Russian literature: in 3 T. - M., 1964. T.3.
4. History of Russian literature: in 4 T. - L., 1984. T. 4.
5. P.S. Gurevich. Culturology. – M., 1998.
6. Philosophy of culture. Formation and development. – St. Petersburg, 1998.
Topic 3. Specifics of realism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries
1. Typology of realism: classical realism, philosophical and psychological realism, “natural” realism, expressionistic realism, socialist realism. Neo-naturalism.
2. Features of poetics.
Realism(from Latin realis - material, real) - a direction in world art that became widespread in the second half of the 19th century, manifesting itself in subsequent eras of cultural development.
The main features of the philosophy and aesthetics of realism:
1) ideological foundations - the ideas of materialism and positivism;
2) the desire for an objective depiction of life, which is achieved by following the principles of a) social; b) historical; c) psychological determinism (conditionality) of images;
3) nationality;
4) historicism;
5) an attempt to present the world in all its complexity and inconsistency, but at the same time whole;
6) the desire to understand the laws of reality in order to change it for the better;
7) understanding of art as a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the surrounding reality;
8) absence of taboo topics, because The basic requirements for art are authenticity, accuracy, truthfulness.
9) hero - an ordinary person, as a rule, a typical representative of a particular historical era, a certain social circle.
* Some literary theorists deny the existence of realism as literary direction, believing that from the late 18th to the mid-20th century, romanticism existed in art, within which three stages are distinguished: romanticism proper, late romanticism (what is traditionally called realism) and post-romanticism (traditionally modernism).
Features of Russian realism of the late 19th – early 20th centuries:
1) transitional nature (If in the second half of the 19th century realism was the central direction in art, then at the turn of the century modernism began to compete with it, significantly influencing it.);
2) heterogeneity (Almost each of the realist authors understands realism in his own way, expressing his ideas about it through an appeal to the traditions of romanticism (M. Gorky, V. Korolenko), expressionism (L. Andreev), impressionism (A.P. Chekhov ) and etc.);
3) preference is given to small epic forms (the genre of the novel - central to realistic prose of the second half of the 19th century - is practically replaced by the genres of the story and novella.);
4) the gravity of realistic works epic genre to lyricism;
5) the desire to create symbolic images.
Types of Russian realism of the late 19th – early 20th centuries
Classical
"Natural" realism
Philosophical-psychological realism
Heroic-romantic realism
Expressionistic realism
L.N. Tolstoy,
A.P. Chekhov
A.I. Kuprin,
V.V. Veresaev
I.A. Bunin
A.M. Bitter,
A.I. Serafimovich
L. Andreev
Each individual person represents a whole world, therefore, knowledge of the laws of existence seems possible only through comprehension of the world of an individual human personality.
The highest achievements in Russian art are associated with realism, so it is necessary to continue its traditions. The main goal of a turn-of-the-century realist is to help and support a person who has lost orientation in a changed world.
The most striking implementation of the idea “man is the universe.” If you want to know the world, know a person. Basis: philosophy of anthropocosmism
Ideological bias and political bias in literature; The priority becomes not the individual, but the collective principle; when creating an image, the factor of social conditioning is put at the forefront.
Realistic images should be so bright and impressive that the reader experiences an emotional shock.
Literature:
1. Literary encyclopedic dictionary / translation by V. Kozhevnikov and P. Nikolaev - M., 1987.
2. Khalizev V.E. Theory of literature. – M., 1999.
3. Rudnev V. Dictionary of 20th century culture. – M., 1999.
4. Rudnev V. encyclopedic Dictionary culture of the twentieth century. – M., 2001.
5. Sokolov A.G.. History of Russian literature from the 19th to the 20th century. – M., 1999.
6. History of Russian literature: in 10 T. – M.; L., 1954. T. 10.
7. History of Russian literature: in 3 T. - M., 1964. T.3.
8. History of Russian literature: in 4 T. - L., 1984. T. 4.
9. P.S. Gurevich. Culturology. – M., 1998.
10. Philosophy of culture. Formation and development. – St. Petersburg, 1998.
11. Byaly G.A. Russian realism towards the 19th century. – L., 1973.
12. Keldysh V.A. Russian realism of the 20th century. – M., 1975.
Topic 4. The fate of realism in the works of V. Veresaev, A. Kuprin, M. Gorky, L. Andreev
1. “Natural realism” by V. Veresaev and A. Kuprin. Veresaev's artistic chronicle and Kuprin's extensive way of writing.
2. M. Gorky: mythologies of reality.
3. Expressionistic paradigm in the works of L. Andreev.
V.V. Veresaev
The specificity of worldview, due to the collapse of populist ideals. The text as an “artistic chronicle of the life of the intelligentsia” of the border period. Subjects and issues: the theme of the intelligentsia, peasant theme, the theme of the mission of art. Late Veresaev: artistic literary criticism.
A.I. Kuprin
An extensive way of knowing existence. Specifics of searching for and finding a hero. Features of the plot: rehabilitation of the adventurous element. Dostoevsky and Nietzsche in the artistic consciousness of the writer. A spontaneous element in Kuprin's prose. Topics and problems. Naturalistic component in artistic system writer.
Genre: story
Subject: the love story of a minor official Zheltkov for Princess Vera Nikolaevna Sheina
Problem: searching for an answer to the question “What is true love? What does it require from a person?
Style: realistic with pronounced elements of romanticism
The concept of love in the story
Concept
The essence of the concept
Examples from the text
Love in performance Zheltkova
Love is knightly service to the Beautiful Lady. This feeling does not require an answer, does not insist on anything. Love presupposes complete self-denial, since only the happiness and peace of the beloved being matters to the lover. Suffering caused by love is accepted as a blessing, since true love, even unrequited love, is the highest happiness that can be sent to a person.
For example, a letter to Princess Vera on her name day, a farewell letter.
Love in performance
Prince Vasily
Love in life modern man- a somewhat comical feeling: it belongs more in ancient novels than in reality, where ardent passion often turns into a funny anecdote. The most logical way to develop a feeling of love is to develop it into a feeling of friendship. However, this confidence wavers somewhat after meeting Zheltkov.
For example, the album of Prince Vasily, which contains illustrated semi-anecdotal stories of love interests, the heroes of which are people from his closest circle (Vera, Lyudmila, etc.)
Love in performance
Faith
True love has not yet touched her. Having not experienced this feeling herself, she is content with the calm, even, rather friendly than love, relationship established between her and Prince Vasily. Zheltkov’s death demonstrates to her the power of true love, fulfilling his last will, she experiences a kind of catharsis - purification through suffering. Thus, she comes close to understanding the true essence of love.
For example, final scenes story: visiting Zheltkov’s apartment after his death and saying goodbye to him, feelings and thoughts evoked by Beethoven’s music, the feeling that she and Prince Vasily will no longer be able to live as before.
Love in performance
Anna
The main thing in life is to get maximum impressions and pleasures. Love in reality is most successfully realized in the form of light flirting, which does not make anyone suffer, but brings only joy and entertainment.
For example, scenes with Vasyuchko, the idea of a gift for Vera is an old prayer book, converted into a lady’s notebook.
Love as seen by a general Anosova
The stories about love told by the old general most clearly confirm the concept of love, the bearer of which in the story is Zheltkov: true love requires self-sacrifice and self-denial from a person. He is the first to understand that life path Vera was crossed by that very “love that all women dream of, but which men are no longer capable of.” Emasculation of the essence of a love feeling, from the point of view of General Anosov, will lead to catastrophic consequences for humanity.
For example, the scene of an evening walk after Vera’s name day is the memoirs of General Anosov (love stories).
A.M. Bitter
The “mediumistic” role of Gorky’s personality in Russian cultural life at the turn of the century. The specifics of the romantic paradigm in its early work: epigonism or neo-mythologization (transformation of the mythology of the Old Testament and rethinking of Nietzsche’s mythology). Anarchistic and systematizing tendencies in artistic thinking. Prose of early Gorky. The novel “Mother” - “The Gospel of Maxim”?
Pre-October creativity of A.M. Gorky (1868-1936): play “At the Depths”
Genre and content features of the play -
Related information.
Realism (from the Latin “realis” - real, material) is a direction in art that arose at the end of the 18th century, reached its peak in the 19th, continues to develop at the beginning of the 20th century and still exists. Its goal is a real and objective reproduction of objects and objects of the surrounding world, while preserving their typical features and characteristics. In the process of the historical development of all art in general, realism acquired specific forms and methods, as a result of which three stages are distinguished: educational (Era of Enlightenment, late 18th century), critical (19th century) and socialist realism(early 20th century).
The term "realism" was first used by the French literary critic Jules Jeanfleury, who in his book “Realism” (1857) interpreted this concept as art created to counter such movements as romanticism and academicism. It acted as a form of response to idealization, which is characteristic of romanticism and the classical principles of academicism. Having a sharp social orientation, it was called critical. This direction reflected the acute social problems, gave an assessment various phenomena in the life of society of that time. Its leading principles consisted of an objective reflection of the essential aspects of life, which at the same time contained the height and truth of the author’s ideals, in the reproduction of characteristic situations and typical characters, while maintaining the fullness of their artistic individuality.
(Boris Kustodiev "Portrait of D.F. Bogoslovsky")
Realism of the early twentieth century was aimed at searching for new connections between man and the reality around him, new creative ways and methods, original means artistic expression. Often he did not express himself in pure form, it is characterized by a close connection with such trends in the art of the twentieth century as symbolism, religious mysticism, and modernism.
Realism in painting
The emergence of this trend in French painting is primarily associated with the name of the artist Gustave Courbier. After several paintings, especially significant for the author, were rejected as exhibits at the World Exhibition in Paris, in 1855 he opened his own “Pavilion of Realism”. The declaration put forward by the artist proclaimed the principles of a new direction in painting, the goal of which was to create living art that conveyed the morals, customs, ideas and appearance of his contemporaries. “Courbier’s realism” immediately caused a sharp reaction from society and critics, who claimed that he, “hiding behind realism, slanderes nature,” called him an artisan in painting, made parodies of him in the theater and denigrated him in every possible way.
(Gustave Courbier "Self-portrait with a black dog")
Realistic art is based on its own special view of the surrounding reality, which criticizes and analyzes many aspects of social life. Hence the name of realism of the 19th century “critical”, because it criticized, first of all, the inhumane essence of the cruel exploitative system, showed the abject poverty and suffering of the offended common people, the injustice and permissiveness of those in power. Criticizing the foundations of the existing bourgeois society, realist artists were noble humanists who believed in Goodness, Supreme Justice, Universal Equality and Happiness for everyone without exception. Later (1870), realism splits into two branches: naturalism and impressionism.
(Julien Dupre "Return from the Fields")
The main themes of artists who painted their canvases in the style of realism were genre scenes urban and rural life of ordinary people (peasants, workers), scenes of street events and incidents, portraits of regulars in street cafes, restaurants and nightclubs. For realist artists it was important to convey the moments of life in its dynamics, to emphasize as believably as possible individual characteristics acting characters, realistically show their feelings, emotions and experiences. Main characteristics canvases depicting human bodies are their sensuality, emotionality and naturalism.
Realism as a direction in painting developed in many countries of the world such as France (Barbizon school), Italy (it was known as verismo), Great Britain (Figurative school), USA (Edward Hopper's Garbage Pail School, art school Thomas Eakins), Australia (Heidelberg School, Tom Roberts, Frederick McCubbin), in Russia it was known as the movement of Itinerant artists.
(Julien Dupre "The Shepherd")
French paintings, written in the spirit of realism, often belonged to the landscape genre, in which the authors tried to convey the nature surrounding them, the beauty of the French province, rural landscapes, which, in their opinion, demonstrated the “real” France in all its splendor in the best possible way. The paintings of French realist artists did not depict idealized types; there were real people, ordinary situations without embellishment, there was no usual aesthetics and the imposition of universal truths.
(Honore Daumier "Third Class Carriage")
The most prominent representatives of French realism in painting were the artists Gustav Courbier (“The Artist’s Workshop,” “The Stone Crusher,” “The Knitter”), Honoré Daumier (“The Third Class Car,” “On the Street,” “The Laundress”), and François Millet (“The Laundress”). The Sower”, “The Harvesters”, “Angelus”, “Death and the Woodcutter”).
(François Millet "The Ear Pickers")
In Russia, the development of realism in the fine arts is closely connected with the awakening of public consciousness and the development of democratic ideas. Progressive citizens of society denounced the existing political system and showed deep sympathy for the tragic fate of the ordinary Russian people.
(Alexey Savrasov "The rooks have arrived")
The group of Peredvizhniki artists, formed towards the end of the 19th century, included such great Russian masters of the brush as landscape painters Ivan Shishkin (“Morning in pine forest", "Rye", "Pine Forest") and Alexey Savrasov ("The Rooks Have Arrived", "Rural View", "Rainbow"), masters of genre and historical paintings Vasily Perov (“Troika”, “Hunters at a Rest”, “Rural Procession at Easter”) and Ivan Kramskoy (“Unknown”, “Inconsolable Grief”, “Christ in the Desert”), outstanding painter Ilya Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga ", "We Didn't Expect", "Religious Procession in the Kursk Province"), master of large-scale images historical events Vasily Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Suvorov’s Crossing of the Alps”) and many others (Vasnetsov, Polenov, Levitan),
(Valentin Serov "Girl with Peaches")
By the beginning of the twentieth century, the traditions of realism were firmly entrenched in the fine arts of that time, and were continued by such artists as Valentin Serov (“Girl with Peaches” “Peter I”), Konstantin Korovin (“In Winter”, “At the Tea Table”, “Boris Godunov” . Coronation"), Sergei Ivanov ("Family", "The Arrival of the Voivode", "Death of a Migrant").
Realism in 19th century art
Critical realism, which appeared in France and reached its peak in many European countries by mid-19th century, arose in contrast to the traditions of previous trends in art, such as romanticism and academicism. His main task was to objectively and truthfully display the “truth of life” using specific means of art.
The emergence of new technologies, the development of medicine, science, various branches of industrial production, the growth of cities, increased exploitative pressure on peasants and workers, all this could not but affect cultural sphere that time, which subsequently led to the development of a new movement in art - realism, designed to reflect the life of the new society without embellishment and distortion.
(Daniel Defoe)
The founder of European realism in literature is considered English writer and publicist Daniel Defoe. In his works “Diary of the Plague Year”, “Roxana”, “The Joys and Sorrows of Mole Flanders”, “The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe”, he reflects various social contradictions of that time, they are based on the statement about the good beginning of every person, which can change under the pressure of external circumstances.
The founder of literary realism and the psychological novel in France is the writer Frederic Stendhal. His famous novels“Red and Black”, “Red and White” showed readers that the description of ordinary scenes of life and everyday human experiences and emotions can be performed with the greatest skill and elevate it to the rank of art. Also among the outstanding realist writers of the 19th century are the French Gustave Flaubert (“Madame Bovary”), Guy de Maupassant (“Dear Friend,” “Strong as Death”), Honore de Balzac (series of novels “ Human Comedy"), the Englishman Charles Dickens ("Oliver Twist", "David Copperfield"), the Americans William Faulkner and Mark Twain.
At the origins of Russian realism there were such outstanding masters pen as playwright Alexander Griboyedov, poet and writer Alexander Pushkin, fabulist Ivan Krylov, their successors Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolai Gogol, Anton Chekhov, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky.
Painting from the realist period of the 19th century is characterized by an objective depiction of real life. French artists under the leadership of Theodore Rousseau, they paint rural landscapes and scenes from street life, proving that ordinary nature without embellishment can also be a unique material for creating masterpieces of fine art.
One of the most scandalous artists realists of that time, who caused a storm of criticism and condemnation, was Gustav Courbier. His still lifes, landscape paintings (“Deer at a Watering Hole”), genre scenes (“Funeral in Ornans”, “Stone Crusher”).
(Pavel Fedotov "Major's Matchmaking")
The founder of Russian realism is the artist Pavel Fedotov, his famous paintings“Major's Matchmaking”, “Fresh Cavalier”, in his works he exposes the vicious morals of society, and expresses his sympathy for the poor and oppressed people. Continuers of its traditions can be called the movement of Peredvizhniki artists, which was founded in 1870 by fourteen best artist graduates of the Imperial Petersburg Academy of Arts together with other painters. Their first exhibition, opened in 1871, was a huge success with the public; it showed a reflection of the real life of ordinary Russian people living in terrible conditions of poverty and oppression. These are famous paintings by Repin, Surikov, Perov, Levitan, Kramskoy, Vasnetsov, Polenov, Ge, Vasiliev, Kuindzhi and other outstanding Russian realist artists.
(Konstantin Meunier "Industry")
In the 19th century, architecture, architecture and related applied arts were in a state of deep crisis and decline, which predetermined unfavorable conditions for the development of monumental sculpture and painting. The dominant capitalist system was hostile to those types of art that were directly related to social life collective ( public buildings, ensembles of broad civil significance), realism as a direction in art was able to fully develop in the fine arts and partly in sculpture. Outstanding realist sculptors of the 19th century: Constantin Meunier (“The Loader,” “Industry,” “The Puddle Man,” “The Hammerman”) and Auguste Rodin (“The Thinker,” “The Walker,” “The Citizens of Calais”).
Realism in 20th century art
In the post-revolutionary period and during the creation and prosperity of the USSR, socialist realism became the dominant direction in Russian art (1932 - the appearance of this term, its author Soviet writer I. Gronsky), which was an aesthetic reflection of the socialist concept of Soviet society.
(K. Yuon "New Planet")
The basic principles of socialist realism, aimed at truthful and realistic image surrounding world in its revolutionary development, there were principles:
- Nationalities. Use common speech patterns and proverbs to make literature understandable to the people;
- Ideology. Designate heroic deeds, new ideas and ways necessary for the happiness of ordinary people;
- Specifics. Depict the surrounding reality in the process of historical development, corresponding to its materialistic understanding.
In literature, the main representatives of social realism were the writers Maxim Gorky (“Mother”, “Foma Gordeev”, “The Life of Klim Samgin”, “At the Depth”, “Song of the Petrel”), Mikhail Sholokhov (“Virgin Soil Upturned”, the epic novel “ Quiet Don"), Nikolai Ostrovsky (novel "How the Steel Was Tempered"), Alexander Serafimovich (story "Iron Stream"), poet Alexander Tvardovsky (poem "Vasily Terkin"), Alexander Fadeev (novels "Destruction", "Young Guard"), etc. .
(M. L. Zvyagin "To work")
Also in the USSR, the works of such foreign authors as the pacifist writer Henri Barbusse (the novel “Fire”), the poet and prose writer Louis Aragon, the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, the German writer and communist Anna Seghers (the novel “The Seventh Cross”) were considered among the socialist realist writers. , Chilean poet and politician Pablo Neruda, Brazilian writer Jorge Amado (“Captains of the Sand”, “Donna Flor and Her Two Husbands”).
Prominent representatives of the trend of socialist realism in Soviet painting: Alexander Deineka (“Defense of Sevastopol”, “Mother”, “Future Pilots”, “Physical Girl”), V. Favorsky, Kukryniksy, A. Gerasimov (“Lenin on the Tribune”, “After the Rain” , “Portrait of the ballerina O. V. Lepeshinskaya”), A. Plastov (“Bathing the Horses”, “Dinner of Tractor Drivers”, “Collective Farm Herd”), A. Laktionov (“Letter from the Front”), P. Konchalovsky (“Lilac” ), K. Yuon (“Komsomolskaya Pravda”, “People”, “New Planet”), P. Vasiliev (portraits and stamps depicting Lenin and Stalin), V. Svarog (“Hero-pilots in the Kremlin before the flight”, “First May - Pioneers"), N. Baskakov ("Lenin and Stalin in Smolny") F. Reshetnikov ("Deuce Again", "Arrived on Vacation"), K. Maksimov and others.
(Vera Mukhina monument "Worker and Collective Farm Woman")
Outstanding Soviet sculptors-monumentalists of the era of socialist realism were Vera Mukhina (monument “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”), Nikolai Tomsky (bas-relief of 56 figures “Defense, Labor, Leisure” on the House of Soviets on Moskovsky Prospekt in Leningrad), Evgenia Vuchetich (monument “Warrior” Liberator" in Berlin, the sculpture "The Motherland Calls!" in Volgograd), Sergei Konenkov. As a rule, especially durable materials such as granite, steel or bronze were selected for large-scale monumental sculptures, and they were installed in open spaces to perpetuate particularly important historical events or heroic-epic deeds.