Classicism Literary movement XVII – early XIX centuries The term “classicism” translated from Latin means “exemplary” and is associated with the principles of imitation of images.
This direction is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as defined artistic direction, tend to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards a certain “norm”, models.
The author had to observe three classical unities: Unity of action - the play must have one main plot, subplots are kept to a minimum. Unity of place - the action is not transferred in space, the area limited by the stage corresponds to the same place in the space of the play. Unity of time - the action of the play should take (in the reality assumed by the work) no more than 24 hours.
The laws of classicism did not allow the mixing of genres, styles and narrative language. If it was an ode, then it should have been written in bookish language on the occasion of a solemn or significant event. In comedy, colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary was allowed.
Higher genres: epic; epic poem; tragedy; ode. Works of the highest genres were supposed to reflect state or historical events; the main characters could be monarchs, generals, aristocrats, as well as gods and heroes of the ancient era.
Low genres: comedy; satire; fable. These works showed the daily life of ordinary people.
In Russia, classicism appeared in the second quarter of the 18th century. Main high genre there was an ode in which poets glorified the acts of Peter I, Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine II, the victories of the Russian troops, or turned to the glorious future of Russia, which was invariably associated with the benefits of the reigning monarchs. Main low genre there was a fable. Russian fables ridiculed the vices of society, but the fables were instructive in nature.
The most prominent representatives of classicism in Russia were V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, I.A. Krylov, D.I. Fonvizin.
Sentimentalism Literary movement second half of the XVIII- the beginning of the 19th century, sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant of “human nature,” which distinguished it from classicism.
Special attention- to the spiritual world of a person. The main thing is declared to be the feeling, the experience of a simple person, and not great ideas. The hero of educational literature in sentimentalism is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him. By origin (or by conviction) the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common people is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.
The main genres of sentimentalism: story, elegy, novel, letters, travel, memoirs
Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s - early 1790s thanks to translations of novels, including “Werther” by J. W. Goethe. The era of Russian sentimentalism was opened by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin “Letters of a Russian Traveler” His story “ Poor Lisa"(1792) - a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther he inherited a general atmosphere of sensitivity, melancholy and the theme of suicide.
Representatives: James Thomson, Edward Jung, Thomas Gray, Laurence Stern (England), Jean Jacques Rousseau (France), Nikolai Karamzin (Russia). In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P. C. de Chamblen de Marivaux, J. -J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre. IN German literature– works by F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Romanticism Literary movement of the late XVIII - second half of the 19th century V. A counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, great attention paid attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict Romanticism was about the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress and an increasingly complex social and political system, there was a spiritual devastation of the individual. Romantics sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism The idea of two worlds is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of dual worlds has two modifications: departure into the world of fantasy; travel, road concept.
Hero Concept: The romantic hero is always an exceptional person; the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality; the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone; aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.
Speech style of a romantic work: extreme expression; the principle of contrast at the composition level; abundance of symbols.
The main genres of romanticism: Elegy Idyll Ballad Novella Novel Fantastic story
Realism Literary movement of the 19th century. Realism – literary direction, which objectively reflects surrounding reality artistic means available to him.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of “realism”, he used the concept of “imitation”, which is close in meaning. Realism was then revived during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality. While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world around us influences personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances.
Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, they distinguish: critical (social) realism; realism of characters; psychological realism; grotesque realism.
Late A. S. Pushkin - the founder of realism in Russian literature (historical drama "Boris Godunov", stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky", "Belkin's Tales", novel in verse "Eugene Onegin") M. Yu. Lermontov (" Hero of Our Time") N. V. Gogol ("Dead Souls", "The Inspector General") I. A. Goncharov ("Oblomov") A. I. Herzen ("Who is to blame?") N. G. Chernyshevsky ("What do? ") F. M. Dostoevsky ("Poor People", "White Nights", "Humiliated and Insulted", "Crime and Punishment", "Demons") L. N. Tolstoy ("War and Peace", "Anna" Karenina", "Resurrection").
I. S. Turgenev (“Rudin”, “The Noble Nest”, “Asya”, “Spring Waters”, “Fathers and Sons”, “New”, “On the Eve”, “Mu-mu”) A. P. Chekhov ( " Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Student", "Chameleon", "The Seagull", "Man in a Case") V. G. Korolenko ("In bad society", "Children of the Dungeon", "Paradox", "The River Plays") A. I. Kuprin ("Junkers", "Olesya", "Staff Captain Rybnikov", "Gambrinus", "Shulamith") A. T. Tvardovsky (“Vasily Terkin”) V. M. Shukshin (“Cut”, “Crank”, “Uncle Ermolai”) B. L. Pasternak (“Doctor Zhivago”) M. A. Sholokhov (“ Quiet Don", "The Fate of a Man") M. A. Bulgakov ("The Master and Margarita", "Heart of a Dog")
Sentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion human personality. Sentimentalism arose in Europe and Russia approximately simultaneously, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterweight to the rigid classical theory that was dominant at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to the manifestations of human spiritual qualities, psychological analysis, and sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the surrounding nature, depicting simple and peaceful rural landscapes in their works, sympathy for the needs of poor people. A prominent representative of English sentimentalism was S. Richardson. He put psychological analysis in the first place and attracted the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. The writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest human value.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P. C. de Chamblen de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - the works of F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, I. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and “Poor Liza” by N.I. Karamzin.
3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, promoted deviations from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it, bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict of romanticism was the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress and an increasingly complex social and political system, there was a spiritual devastation of the individual. Romantics sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
The Romantics became disillusioned with the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly visible in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must submit to them and not try to change his destiny. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, and the early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called “world evil” and contrasted it with the strength of the human spirit.
Inner world romantic hero was full of emotions and passions; throughout the entire work, the author forced him to fight the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics depicted feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of man, but also in the secrets of existence, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the works of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only in the early 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stael, E. P. Senancourt, P. Mérimée, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the Great French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin during the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles, the romantic hero turns into an outcast and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
Main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
Fantastic story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of two worlds is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of dual worlds has two modifications:
escape into the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero Concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional person;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone;
aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism is the identity of the hero’s internal state with the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
extreme expression;
the principle of contrast at the composition level;
abundance of symbols.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; the romantics denied a value system that was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict value system (home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivating individuality and artistic worldview; the reality rejected by romanticism was subordinated to subjective worlds based on the creative imagination of the artist.
4) Realism
Realism is a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality using the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality.
While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer was interested in how the world around him influenced the individual. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of “realism”, he used the concept of “imitation”, which is close in meaning to him. Realism was then revived during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that influence a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. . P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who can fight against circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world, the psychology of the heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, and the greater the grotesque, the more strongly the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism was developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N.V. Gogol, the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M.A. Bulgakov.
5) Modernism
Modernism is a set of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. How new form creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all types of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around us. The author does not seek to realistically or allegorically depict reality, as was the case in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as was the case in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
a declared discrepancy with the theory and practice of realism;
focus on the individual, not the social person;
increased attention to the spiritual rather than the social sphere of human life;
focus on form at the expense of content.
The largest movements of modernism were impressionism, symbolism and art nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture a moment as the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined; what is important is the impression that any object or phenomenon has on the author, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowing familiar images and words with mystical meaning. The Art Nouveau style promoted the rejection of regular geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially clearly in architecture and applied arts.
In the 80s 19th century a new trend of modernism was born - decadence. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, and has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal human values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of personality).
In literature, modernism is represented by the following movements:
Acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imagism.
The most prominent representatives of modernism in literature are French poets C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, Russian poets N. Gumilev, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, English writer O. Wilde, American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.
6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a movement in European literature and art that arose in the 70s. XIX century and especially widely developed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential movement. The theoretical basis for the new trend was given by Emile Zola in his book “The Experimental Novel.”
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, developing into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, high level technology and increased exploitation, on the other - the growth of self-awareness and class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class, fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of the petty bourgeois writers who adhere to naturalism.
The main requirements made by naturalists for literature: scientific, objective, apolitical in the name of “universal truth.” Literature must be at the level of modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on science that does not deny existing social order. Naturalists make the basis of their theory mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, giving advantages to some over others), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically demonstrating the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby bring about a series of reforms in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola included G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers in the natural school. Zola considered the French realists: O. Balzac and Stendhal to be the immediate predecessors of naturalism. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theorist understood this direction. Naturalism, as the style of the leading class, was temporarily embraced by writers very heterogeneous both in artistic method and in belonging to various class groupings. It is characteristic that the unifying point was not the artistic method, but rather the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
Followers of naturalism are characterized by only partial recognition of the set of demands put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they start from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. A whole series followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, without hesitation discarding even such a typical requirement for naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. This is what the German “early naturalists” did (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belsche and others).
Under the sign of decay and rapprochement with impressionism, naturalism began to develop further. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the decomposition of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of capitalization processes are creating more and more new cadres of the intelligentsia, which do not always find application for themselves. Disillusionment with the power of science is becoming more and more widespread among them. Hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are gradually being crushed.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, represents entirely a transitional stage from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht, in his “History of the German People,” proposed calling this style “physiological impressionism.” This term is subsequently used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German nature writers do not even try to hide their bias. At its center there is usually some problem, social or physiological, around which facts are grouped that illustrate it (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Schlyaf. Their basic principles are set out in Goltz's brochure "Art", where Goltz states that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes it in accordance with the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is taken by a short story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transmission of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also being replaced by drama and poetry, which French naturalists viewed extremely negatively as a “kind of entertaining art.” Particular attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptmann, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Suderman), in which intensively developed action is also denied, only the catastrophe and the recording of the experiences of the heroes are given ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). Subsequently, naturalistic drama is reborn into impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism did not receive any development. They were called naturalistic early works F. I. Panferova and M. A. Sholokhova.
7) Natural school
Under natural school literary criticism understands the direction that arose in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an era of increasingly aggravated contradictions between the serfdom and the growth of capitalist elements. Followers natural school in their works they tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time. The term “natural school” itself appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school in the expanded use of the term, as it was used in the 40s, does not denote a single direction, but is a largely conditional concept. The natural school included writers as diverse in their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
The most general signs on the basis of which a writer was considered to belong to the natural school were the following: socially significant topics that covered a wider circle than even the circle social observations(often in the “low” strata of society), a critical attitude towards social reality, realism of artistic expression, which fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, and romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky highlighted the realism of the natural school, asserting that the most important feature was the “truth” and not the “falsehood” of the image. The natural school does not appeal to ideal, fictitious heroes, but to the “crowd,” to the “mass,” to ordinary people and, most often, to people of “low rank.” Common in the 40s. all sorts of “physiological” essays satisfied this need to reflect a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and main feature of the “literature of the Gogol period” its critical, “negative” attitude to reality - “literature of the Gogol period” is here another name for the same natural school: specifically to N. V. Gogol - to the author" Dead souls", "The Inspector General", "Overcoat" - V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics erected the natural school as the founder. Indeed, many writers classified as a natural school experienced the powerful influence of various aspects of N. V. Gogol's work. In addition Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as Charles Dickens, O. Balzac, George Sand.
One of the trends of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjacent to it, was distinguished by the superficial and cautious nature of its criticism of reality: this was either harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of noble reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The range of social observations of this group was limited to the manor’s estate. Representatives of this trend of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied primarily on the urban philistinism of the 40s, which was disadvantaged, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor People", "The Double" and others).
The third movement in the natural school, represented by the so-called “raznochintsy”, ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the clearest expression of the tendencies that were associated by contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) with the name of the natural school and opposed the noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Confused Case”) should also be included in this group.
8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an artistic movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that the aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was subsequently adopted by functionalists and functionalist constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), brings to the fore the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in various directions, more or less “orthodox” interpreting the main thesis of constructivism. Thus, in France and Holland, constructivism was expressed in “purism”, in “machine aesthetics”, in “neoplasticism” (iso-art), and in the aestheticizing formalism of Corbusier (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was initially a narrowly formal movement, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrow aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin moved away from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized Constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement of the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the “organizational onslaught of the working class,” in the construction of socialist culture. This is where constructivism aims to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: “Intelligentsia in revolution and construction.” Dwelling with special attention on the image of the intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, “Commander 2”) and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky “Pushtorg”), constructivists first of all put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific weight and significance in the process of construction. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is contrasted with the mediocre communist Krol, who prevents him from working and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of the work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article of the main theorist of constructivism Cornelius Zelinsky “Constructivism and Socialism”, where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being experienced. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period, Zelinsky is replaced by the struggle between man and nature, the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside of social conditions, outside of the class struggle. These erroneous positions of Zelinsky, which caused a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source feeding constructivism is, undoubtedly, that layer of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the most major poet constructivism) of the first period, the image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly revealed.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and in its place the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), aiming at the gradual transition of fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning the previous mistakes of constructivism, although preserving its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag nature of constructivism’s progress towards the working class makes itself felt here too. This is evidenced by Selvinsky’s poem “Declaration of the Rights of the Poet.” This is confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved the tasks set for itself.
9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism translated from German language literally means "that which follows modernism". This literary movement appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information saturation of our time.
Postmodernists were not happy that literature was divided into elite and mass literature. Postmodernism opposed all modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of detective, thriller, and fantasy, behind which serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that highest art ended. To move forward, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. Works become aimed at both the elite reader and the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
using previous texts as potential for one's own works ( large number quotes, you cannot understand a work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking elements of the culture of the past;
multi-level text organization;
special organization of text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism popular culture. Postmodernism tries to erase the boundary between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented and they could only play with words, take ready-made (already once thought up or written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and assemble works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it refers to the juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
Associated with postmodernism is the concept of intertextuality. This term was introduced by Y. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly appearing text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves in quotes. Modernism is characterized by quotational thinking.
Intertextuality– the presence of two or more texts in the text.
Paratext– the relationship of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality– these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
Hypertextuality– ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Archtextuality– genre connection of texts.
Man in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in in this case destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work; the image of the hero appears in a blurred form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
to take the hero into the shadow: the hero does not come to the fore, he is not needed in the work at all.
Prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barth, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, H. Cortazar, M. Pavich, J. Joyce and others.
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Examples of low genres |
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Comedy, fable, epigram, satire (comedies by J.-B. Moliere “Tartuffe”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”, “The Imaginary Invalid”, etc., fables by J. Lafontaine) |
Comedy, fable, epigram, satire (comedies by D. I. Fonvizin “The Minor”, “Brigadier”, fables by I. A. Krylov) |
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Topics and tasks |
The comedy depicts the life of “ordinary” people: townspeople, servants. Human vices are shown, which are always overcome by virtue, the language of comedy and fables is “reduced”, ordinary. The task of a comedian and fabulist is to expose and ridicule vice, establish virtue, lead the viewer-reader to a clear conclusion, and formulate a “moral” |
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Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism (from the French sentiment - feeling) is a movement in the literature and art of Europe and Russia in the second half of the 18th century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and a heightened emotional attitude towards the world around us. The innovation of sentimentalism lies in its exclusive attention to the mental state of the individual and appeal to the experiences of a simple, humble person. Works written within this artistic movement focus on the reader's perception, that is, on the sensitivity that arises when reading them. The hero in sentimentalism is individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him.
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emergence |
Formed in the second half of the 18th century in England, then spread throughout Europe |
Formed in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the XIX century |
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Historical circumstances contributing to the emergence |
Appearance sentimentalism is associated with the Enlightenment, it reflected the growth of democratic sentiments in society |
The emergence and development of sentimentalism in Russia is associated with the penetration and spread of Enlightenment ideas in Russian society |
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Main features |
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Main features |
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Writers and works |
L. Stern “Sentimental Journey”, J. Thomson “Winter”, “Summer”, T. Gray “Rural Cemetery”, S. Richardson “Pamela”, “Clarissa Garlot”, “Sir Charles Grandison” France: Abbot Prevost “Manon Lescaut”, J.-J. Rousseau "Julia, or the New Heloise" |
N. M. Karamzin “Poor Liza”, “Letters of a Russian Traveler”, A. N. Radishchev “Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow” |
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Travel novel |
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Romanticism
Romanticism (from the French gotanIvte (medieval French Iotanb) - novel) is an ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. Spread to various areas human activity. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic. At the beginning
Main literary movements Classicism Sentimentalism Romanticism Realism Signs of a literary movement Unite writers of a certain historical era Represent a special type of hero Express a certain worldview Select characteristic themes and plots Work in certain genres Stand out in style artistic speech They put forward certain life and aesthetic ideals
Classicism 17th – early 19th centuries. Russian classicism - national-patriotic themes associated with the transformations of Peter 1 Distinctive Features- Violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image - far-fetched images, schematic characters - Edifying nature of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative - the use of a language that is little understood by the common people - national, civil orientation - Establishment of a hierarchy of genres: “high” (odes, tragedies), “medium” (elegies, historical works, friendly letters), “low” (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams) - The rule of “three unities”: time, place and action (all events occur in 24 hours , in one place and around one storyline)
Representatives of classicism Russian literature: M. Lomonosov (“Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”) G. Derzhavin (ode “Felitsa”) A. Sumarokov (tragedies) D. Fonvizin (comedies “The Brigadier”, “The Minor” ") Western European literature: P. Corneille, Voltaire, Moliere, J. Lefontaine
Sentimentalism 2nd half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. Distinctive features - Revealing human psychology - Feeling is declared the highest value - Interest in to the common man, to the world of his feelings, to nature, to everyday life - Idealization of reality, subjective image of the world - Ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature - The work is often written in the 1st person, which gives it lyricism and poetry
Romanticism A direction reflecting the artist’s desire to contrast reality and dreams. Distinctive features - unusualness, exoticism in the depiction of events, landscapes, people - daydreaming, idealization of reality, cult of freedom - striving for ideal, perfection - strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero - image of a hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate) - Contrast in a mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual
Representatives of romanticism Russian literature - V. Zhukovsky (ballads Lyudmila, Svetlana, Tsar of the Forest - K. Ryleev (poems) - A. Pushkin (Poems " Caucasian prisoner", "Gypsies", "Bakhchisarai Fountain") - M. Lermontov (poem "Mtsyri") - N. Gogol (story "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka") - - M. Gorky (story "Old Woman Izergil", "Song of Falcon", "Song of the Petrel" - Western European literature - D. Byron, I.V. Goethe, Schiller, Hoffmann, P. Merimee, V. Hugo, V. Scott
Realism A movement in art and literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, which is based on a complete, truthful and reliable depiction of life. Distinctive features - The basis is a conflict: hero - society - typical literary characters- Typical techniques in depicting reality (portrait, landscape, interior) - Depiction of a certain historical era, real events - Depiction of events and heroes in development - All characters are depicted not in the abstract, but in interaction with the outside world
Representatives of realism - A. Griboedov (comedy “Woe from Wit”) - A. Pushkin (“Little Tragedies”, “Eugene Onegin”) - M. Lermontov (novel “A Hero of Our Time”) - N. Gogol (poem “Dead Souls”) - I. Turgenev (novels “Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve”, “Rudin”, etc.) - L. Tolstoy (“After the Ball”, “Resurrection”, “War and Peace”, “ Sevastopol stories", etc.) - F. Dostoevsky ("Crime and Punishment", "Idiot", "The Brothers Karamazov", etc.)
Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism in the Republic of Lithuania of the 18th-19th centuries (repetition). 9th grade.
Lesson objectives: A) Deepen knowledge about classicism and sentimentalism, give concepts about romanticism and realism as artistic movements, teach comparison different directions, revealing the uniqueness of each, while turning to works of literature; improve knowledge of works of literature of the 19th century.
B) Cultivate a love of literature, develop aesthetic feelings.
B) Develop imaginative thinking, memory, logic, ability to conduct dialogue, conversation, improve speech skills.
Lesson progress
The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. At the beginning of the century, art was finally separated from court poetry and “album” poems; for the first time in the history of Russian literature, the features of a professional poet appeared; lyrics became more natural, simpler, and more humane. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language.
We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Therefore, let us turn again to classicism.
A message about classicism.
The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in Russian poetry.
Let's turn to sentimentalism. Where the Dominant of “human nature” is declared to be feeling, not reason, and this distinguishes sentimentalism from classicism.
A message about sentimentalism
Karamzin's sentimentalism had a great influence on the development of Russian literature: it inspired, among other things, the romanticism of Zhukovsky and the work of Pushkin.
Romanticism (late 18th century - first half of the 19th century) affirms the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, depicts strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.
A message about romanticism
Romanticism was of great importance for the development of literature. Romantic poets with their creativity contributed to the popularization of folklore and took care of its recognition. The works of these poets are still interesting to us. They enchant us with their uniqueness and folk song perfection.
Early poetry also developed within the framework of Romanticism. His southern link coincided with a nearby historical events and in Pushkin the hope was ripe for the achievability of the ideals of freedom and liberty, but after several years of cold reception of his works, he soon realized that the world was ruled not by opinions, but by authorities. In the works of Pushkin of the romantic period, the conviction matured that there are objective laws in the world that a person cannot shake, no matter how brave and beautiful his thoughts are. This determined the tragic tone of Pushkin’s muse.
Gradually, in the 30s, the first “signs” of realism appeared in Pushkin.
A message about realism
Russian literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem “Dead Souls,” the writer, in a sharp satirical manner, shows a swindler who buys dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices. The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. Full satirical images and works. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society - characteristic feature all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century.
Working with cards. All students are given cards, the teacher explains the task (read the characteristics of one of the directions, write the answer).
Each of the 8 tasks is checked collectively with discussion.
b) Questions: What works of classicism do you know? Which romantic poem did you study in 8th grade? Which epic work Was Pushkin written in the tradition of realism?
c) “Journey into the unknown.”(Pinning literary concepts and expanding the reader's horizons).
Teacher reads excerpts from works, students determine which bad. direction they belong. (See Appendix).
1. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky “Sailor Nikitin”.
2. Karamzin “Poor Liza”.
3. Gogol’s “The Overcoat”.
Generalization.
Teacher: Today we are transported almost 2 centuries ago.
Do you think these works can excite, interest, touch the modern reader and viewer?
What is dear to us in the art of bygone eras? (Humanity, humanism, the inner world of man).
Literature teaches us to see “souls of changeable signs.” Ahead of us is an acquaintance with new writers, poets and their works.
Exercise
CLASSICISM, REALISM, SENTIMENTALISM, ROMANTICISM.
Exercise: Enter the name of the artistic movement.
1. ________________________ brought to the fore human feeling, a person’s ability to emotionally perceive and experience.
2. _________________________ is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules.
3. __________________________ is distinguished by an emphasized interest in personality, human individuality, the pathos of freedom, independence, the heroism of protest, the desire for perfection and renewal. The writers did not set out to reproduce reality, but sought to express their attitude towards it.
4. In literature____________________, reality itself was depicted not so much as its reflection in the feelings of the narrator and characters. Main actors could be " ordinary people" Writers saw human dignity in the ability to feel and experience.
5. The basis of _______________________ is the desire for the life truth of artistic images.
6. __________________________, as a certain artistic movement, tends to reflect life in ideal images that gravitate toward the universal “norm” and model. Hence the cult of antiquity: antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.
7. __________________________ hero is an exceptional person, with strong, indomitable passions, who does not recognize the laws to which others are subject. The exclusivity of the characters is combined with the exclusivity of events and conflicts, their special drama and tension.
8.____________________________ turned not only to an artistically accurate depiction of reality in all the diversity of its manifestations: events, characters, nature, things, phenomena, but also to the search and artistic analysis patterns that operate in life.
Karamzin "Poor Liza".
Lisa slept very poorly. The new guest of her soul seemed to her so vividly that she woke up almost every minute, woke up and sighed. Even before the sun rose, Lisa got up, went down to the bank of the Moscow River, sat down on the grass... Meanwhile, a young shepherd was driving his flock along the river bank, playing the pipe. Lisa fixed her gaze on him and thought: “If the one who now occupies my thoughts was born a simple peasant, a shepherd - and if he were now driving his flock past me: ah! I would bow to him with a smile and say cordially:
“Hello, dear shepherd. Where are you driving your flock? And here green grass grows for your sheep, and here flowers grow red, from which you can weave a wreath for your hat.” He would look at me with an affectionate look - maybe he would take my hand... A dream! A shepherd, playing the flute, passed by and disappeared with his motley flock behind a nearby hill.
The story "The Overcoat"
Even in those hours when the gray sky of St. Petersburg completely goes out and all the official people have eaten and dined as best they could, in accordance with the salary received and their own whim - when everything has already rested after the departmental creaking of feathers, running around, when officials are in a hurry to devote the remaining time to pleasure : whoever is smarter rushes to the theater; some on the street, assigning him to look at some hats; who, and this happens most often, simply goes to his brother on the fourth or third floor, in two small rooms with a hallway or kitchen - in a word, even at a time when all the officials are scattered in the small apartments of their friends to play whist, sipping tea with cheap crackers, - Akaki Akakievich did not indulge in any entertainment.
Pushkin “It went out” daylight“The excitement of the ocean awakens in the poet memories of his past “desires and hopes,” about his past “crazy love” that he cannot forget, and an infinitely strong desire for new impressions. The lines of this poem are written not only about the sea, but also about the excitement of the poet’s soul:
Make noise, make noise, obedient sail,
Worry beneath me, sullen ocean
I see a distant shore
The lands of the midday are magical lands;
I rush there with excitement and longing;
Drunk with memories...
And I feel: tears were born in my eyes again;
The soul boils and freezes;
A familiar dream flies around me;
I remembered the crazy love of previous years,
And everything that I suffered, and everything that is dear to my heart,
Desires and hopes are a painful deception...
These lines perfectly combine the agitated sea and the soul in excitement.
Bestuzhev-Marlinsky “Sailor Nikitin”
It is your choice to read or not to read me; mine is to write as you please... My pen is an unauthorized bow, a witch’s broom, a rider’s horse. Yes, riding on a feather, I am a free Cossack, I can scour the paper without commandment wherever my eyes look. That’s what I do: I give up the reins and don’t look back, don’t count on what lies ahead. I don’t want to know whether the wind is covering my trail, whether my trail is straight or patterned. He jumped over the fence, swam across the river - good; If it didn’t work out, that’s also good. I am already pleased that I galloped across the expanse, completely, until I was tired. I'm tired of your broken stones literary theories... Steppe to me, storms! I'm light with dreams - I'm flying into the sky; If my thoughts are heavy, I dive into the depths of the sea...
Russian classicism
In Russia, the formation of classicism occurs almost three-quarters of a century later than it took shape in France.
Russian classicism originated and developed on original soil, taking into account the experience that Western European classicism has accumulated.
The peculiar features of Russian classicism are the following: firstly, from the very beginning in Russian classicism there is a strong connection with modern reality, which in best works covered from the point of view of advanced ideas.
The second feature of Russian classicism is the accusatory and satirical current in their work, conditioned by the progressive social ideas of writers. The presence of satire in the works of Russian classic writers gives their work a vitally truthful character. Living modernity, Russian reality, Russian people and Russian nature are to a certain extent reflected in their works.
The third feature of Russian classicism, due to the ardent patriotism of Russian writers, is their interest in the history of their homeland. They all study Russian history, write works on national and historical topics.
The establishment of classicism was facilitated by four major literary figures:, I.
The pinnacle of Russian classicism is the work of (Brigadier, Nedorosl), the creator of a truly original national comedy, who laid the foundations of critical realism within this system.
Sentimentalism in Russia.
Sentimentalism believed that the ideal of human activity was not the “reasonable” reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. His hero is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him. By origin and by conviction, the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common people is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.
Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s and early 1790s thanks to translations of the novels of Goethe, Rousseau and others. The era of Russian sentimentalism was opened by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin with Letters from a Russian Traveler (1791–1792).
His novel Poor Liza (1792) is a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther he inherited a general atmosphere of sensitivity and melancholy and the theme of suicide.
Karamzin gave rise to a huge number of imitations; at the beginning of the 19th century Poor Izmailova (1801), Journey to Midday Russia (1802), etc. appeared.
Marked by sentimentalism early work Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. Russian sentimentalism had exhausted itself by 1820.
It was one of the stages of the pan-European literary development, which ended the Age of Enlightenment and opened the way to romanticism.
Romanticism
In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment. Romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. The image of a “noble savage” armed with “ folk wisdom"and not spoiled by civilization.
The main features of romanticism are the primacy of the internal over the external, the unique over the typical, the sensitive over the rational. New genres are being created.
Characters romantic works- courageous and persistent patriotic heroes, people who have achieved internal harmony and unity with nature. Psychological parallelism is very common in the works of the romantics: man is depicted next to nature, with which he is in close connection. The most famous representatives romanticism were Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Lermontov.
The founder of Russian romanticism is Zhukovsky: Russian poet, translator, critic. In 1808, together with the ballad “Lyudmila” that came out from his pen, a new, completely special content entered Russian literature - romanticism.
This direction acquired the greatest intensity in the 30s - early. 40s The poetry of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism.
In his poetry, the main conflict of romanticism - the contradiction between ideal and reality - reaches extreme tension, which significantly distinguishes him from the romantic poets of the early 19th century.
The main object of Lermontov's lyrics is the inner world of man - deep and contradictory. The key theme in Lermontov's work is the theme of the tragic loneliness of the individual in a hostile and unjust world.
Realism
Realism in literature- a truthful depiction of reality.
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature, which is created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, there are strong contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The socio-political, philosophical issues. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
Outstanding examples of literature of this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama "Boris Godunov", the stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky", "Belkin's Stories", as well as the novel by Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov "Hero of our time"
and outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is an artistic type extra person", the example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel, and the so-called type " little man”, which is shown in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as in the story “The Station Agent”.