Traditional education system. Characteristics of traditional education

The traditional type of education is implemented mainly through the classroom-lesson education system, which was created about 400 years ago.

Traditional learning is characterized by a mandatory element - lesson, which is a simultaneous activity with the whole class. At the same time, the teacher reports, transfers knowledge, develops skills and abilities, based on the presentation of new material, its reproduction by students, and evaluates the results of this reproduction. Traditional education is predominantly reproductive in nature. The teacher is the only one who takes the initiative actor. The main effort of the teacher is aimed at ensuring that the best way present educational information. The student must also present to the teacher the mastered content of the educational material.

The main way traditional education is explanatory and illustrative. Traditional teaching requires modifications to tailor the environment to each student. One of the ways of modernization is to introduce elements of developmental training into its organization. That is, the formation educational activities, which includes a learning task, learning actions, control actions and assessment of the degree of knowledge acquisition. Another way to improve traditional teaching appears to be based on the integration of information and developmental methods and forms of teaching.

Traditional technology.

Actions of the teacher and students:

1. Goal setting stage, updating

The teacher himself sets goals for students, determines what is “right” and what is “wrong.” Students accept the teacher's goals and guidelines.

2. Stage of learning new material

The teacher expounds new information(reading, viewing); chooses ways to achieve goals. The student accepts them.

3. Summarizing stage. The teacher asks a few questions:

“What did you like about the lesson? What new have you learned?

The advantages of traditional technologies include:

· scientific character (there can be no false knowledge, only incomplete knowledge);

· organizational clarity of the pedagogical process;

· constant ideological and emotional impact of the teacher’s personality;

· optimal expenditure of resources during mass training;

· ordered, logically correct presentation of educational material;

· focus on memory development (memorization and reproduction);

· availability;

· taking into account the age and individual characteristics of students;

· awareness and activity (know the task set by the teacher and be active in carrying out commands).

· At the same time, traditional technologies also have disadvantages:

· subject - the objective nature of the relationship between teachers and students, orientation towards the formation of stereotyped thinking;

lack of development orientation creative potential students, suppression of student initiative;

· equal approach to all students.

Modern technologies: (according to Khutorskoy)

1. Technologies based on the activation and intensification of student activity:

· Gaming technologies

· Problem-based learning technology

· Technology of intensive training based on schematic and symbolic models of educational material (Shatalov)

· Level differentiation technology

· Technology of individualization of training

· Programmed learning technology

· Educational information technologies

· Interactive technologies (discussions, debates, competitions)

· Technology for solving intellectual problems

2 Alternative technologies

· Technology of free labor (Frenet) (It is necessary to create opportunities for the free expression of everyone in any field. Labor will become the fundamental principle, driving force and philosophy of the public school. Bright head and skillful hands better than a mind overloaded with unnecessary knowledge)

· Project-based learning technology

· Workshop technology (below detailed description)

· Dalton technology (a combination of classroom learning with an educational process based on three principles: freedom, independence, cooperation)

· Case technology (at the beginning of training, an individual plan is drawn up, each student receives a so-called case containing a package of educational literature, a multimedia video course, a virtual laboratory and training programs on CD-ROM, as well as an electronic workbook. The latter is a kind of guide to course and contains recommendations for studying educational material, test questions for self-testing, tests, creative and practical tasks. While studying the course material, the student can request help by email, send the results of practical assignments, laboratory work).

3.Nature-conforming technologies

· Technology of saving and promoting health

· Technology of teaching children with signs of giftedness

4.Developmental learning technologies

· Zankov's technology of developmental education

· Personally-oriented developmental education (Yakimanskaya) – the child’s personality, its originality, self-worth are placed at the forefront, the subjective experience of each is first revealed, and then consistent with the content of education)

· Technology of self-development training (Selevko) - genuine teaching covers the entire personality of a person. The experience of teaching helps him, firstly, to establish his personal characteristics, and secondly, to discover in oneself thoughts, actions and experiences that are of a universal human nature, capable, on the one hand, of unlocking his individuality, and on the other, connecting him with all of humanity.

Technologies for teaching innovative teachers:

System L.V., Zankova was created in the late 1950s. It arose in response to Vygotsky's idea that training must come before development, lead him along. Learning is refracted through inner world child, his characteristics and abilities and allows him to reach his stage of development. Zankov also introduced the concept of the general development of the child as a general goal of education in primary school.

The Zankov system is built on the following principles:

1. The leading role in training is given to theoretical knowledge.

2. The training itself is conducted at a high level of difficulty.

3. Learning proceeds at a fast pace.

4. There is a general development of both weak and strong students.

5. Students' awareness of the learning process.

Six elements of the Zankov system:

1. The main task of education is the general development of the child, his will, mind, feelings. On the basis of this development, learning itself occurs, the formation of skills and abilities.

2. Elementary education should give the child a general idea of ​​the picture of the world based on the values ​​of science, art, literature, as well as theoretical and empirical knowledge about the world around him. It is implemented through the introduction of natural science in the first grade, acquiring knowledge outside of school, and enriching the content of ordinary subjects from the everyday experience of children.

3. Organizational forms of training should be flexible, with an increase in independent activities, excursions, and a large number of observations. Crafts, questions for adults on homework.

4. The teaching methodology should be variable and multifaceted, focused on involving the will, intellect, emotions, and other aspects of the personality in the learning process, which would allow changing the style of work, pace, and tasks in different classes.

5. The relationship between student and teacher is full of positive emotions, a feeling of success from intellectual activity.

6. Monitoring learning outcomes is aimed not only at completing the program, but also at identifying changes in the general development of the child, his will, thinking, and values.

This system is effective because thanks to it, children become more developed, they show an inclination towards mental and intellectual activity, they cultivate high emotional and volitional qualities, critical thinking, and a sense of cooperation and awareness of the value of the individual is formed.

Although Zankov’s system contains teaching technology, it is still not fully developed, as is necessary from the point of view of technology. First of all, this system is focused on the development of the personality of students, but at present the problem of diagnosing the level of development by pedagogy is far from being solved, and there are also no reliable measuring tools. This system has low reproducibility of teaching, which is confirmed by the relatively small number of teachers working in accordance with it today.

In the Elkonin-Davydov system the student is seen as a self-changing subject of learning, and not as an object. The purpose of a student’s education is his development and education as a subject of his own life. That is, the student must be able to set tasks for himself and find ways to solve them. The basis of the content of education should be a system of scientific concepts that defines general ways of solving problems.

The teaching methodology organizes the educational activities of students, which ensures the search for ways to solve emerging problems. Therefore, the system widely uses creative and exploratory teaching methods, excluding explanation and demonstration in the usual sense.

Explanation and demonstration are considered unsuitable in educational activities because they deprive them of meaning. After all, if the method of action has already been shown, then the students have nothing to look for. That's why initial stage educational activity is the formulation of an educational task. The essential point of this technique is that the teacher’s work is aimed at finding a general way to solve this class of problems, and not at organizing a search for a particular solution to a specific problem.

Setting a learning task, solving it together, evaluating the method of action found- Here three components of developmental education, which can be identified in the system Elkonina-Davydova.

But what is the interaction of students in the educational process:

♦ educational and search activity, in which the teacher creates the prerequisites for the search, and the student implements them;

♦ joint activities coordinated by the teacher;

♦ cooperation, in which the student interacts not only with the teacher, but also with his classmates.

A necessary condition for developmental learning is precisely the organized interaction of students. After all, any exploratory research activity should always be accompanied by dialogue with opponents, with other researchers and students. In this dialogue, a special role belongs to the teacher. He must find his place in it, be able to direct it in the right direction.

During large-scale experiments, the effectiveness of the Elkonin-Davydov system was demonstrated. Its main result was the emergence and development of theoretical thinking among younger schoolchildren.

Theoretical thinking arises and develops accidentally, regardless of learning. Thanks to the mechanisms of involuntary memory, by turning to theoretical thinking, understanding the connections of educational material and incorporating knowledge stored in memory, children experience a fundamentally different way of developing perception, memory, and imagination. This development path ensures the effective interaction of two forms of memory - voluntary and involuntary.

Students experience the formation of meaningful motives for learning and a transition to self-esteem, as well as a change in those personality traits that hinder its development. What becomes important is a meaningful assessment of the methods and results of activities by one’s classmates and the teacher, and not a school grade as an incentive. By the end of primary school, students increasingly develop self-esteem.

Thanks to the development of the emotional and moral sphere of students in the process of developmental education, a feeling of respect for other people, their thoughts, and positions appears. A sense of responsibility for a common cause is born, which stimulates the development of morality.

All elements of developmental education technology have been created in the Elkonin-Davydov system. Although the authors of this system and their followers prepared and published a set of textbooks for primary schools, it must be said that not all elements of this system are spelled out at the procedural level. Since mastering the technology of developmental education by teachers is difficult, it requires the formation of abilities for pedagogical creativity.

Developmental education turns out to be developmental not only for students, but also for teachers.

In the early 70s. XX century People's Teacher of the USSR Shatalov Viktor Fedorovich developed an original innovative system of training and education of schoolchildren. It has become popular in many countries around the world. Shatalov updated and developed the laws established by science, which were not previously in demand by pedagogy. Shatalov developed in his methodological system 7 principles, some of which he borrowed from L.V. Zankova.

1. Training at a high level of complexity.

2. Conflict-free.

3. Move forward quickly.

4. Open prospects.

5. Super repetition.

6. The leading role of theoretical knowledge.

7. Publicity.

Shatalov system includes 6 elements: organization of super-multiple repetition, knowledge inspection, knowledge assessment system, problem solving methodology, supporting notes, sports work with kids. Although most teachers associate Shatalov’s system with reference notes, the teacher himself gave them the last place in his system.

Shatalov’s system covers all aspects of the education and upbringing of schoolchildren, which can be confirmed by the list of the above elements. Shatalov and his followers developed a training system in its entirety and even in small details. So, if a student missed one lesson, then the technology contains didactic tools that will allow him to learn new material, and a supporting summary, which will make it possible to successfully prepare for its reproduction.

This teaching technology provides such techniques and means of work that help save labor costs and teacher time. For example, after checking the supporting notes, a mark is not placed on the notes themselves, but they are laid out in piles, each of which corresponds to a specific mark. These piles are then marked in the journal and open survey sheet. This allows you to save seconds, but these then add up to minutes, which the teacher can spend on productive work with the class.

Monitoring learning outcomes in the Shatalov system is effectively solved through a written survey of all students on reference signals, and conducting midterm control after completing large sections of the course. For example, when teaching a subject in 35 lessons, each student may well receive about 30 marks. This allows the open survey sheet, which contains all the marks, to immediately identify all gaps in knowledge and remove them.

All these techniques and teaching aids are called "knowledge inspections*. This is a daily check. But such testing very quickly becomes familiar and even desirable for all students, because their success and desire to study better grows. That is why it is not uncommon for the entire class to have only A’s on their open survey report sheet.

Teaching schoolchildren to solve problems is considered the most difficult didactic task. Shatalov managed to develop such technological techniques in his system, thanks to which not only successful learning occurs in solving all problems, but students do it with eagerness and interest. At the beginning of the school year, each student is given a special plaque on which the numbers of the required tasks are marked. On this board, the student marks the problems that he has already been able to solve. Some tasks from this block are submitted to control tests, which Shatalov called relay tasks.

Shatalov's reference notes are a wonderful didactic tool that facilitates the learning process. The notes themselves and the reference signals they contain cause students to develop associative images that ensure logical memorization and successful reproduction of educational material.

Primary education system of Sofia Nikolaevna Lysenkova also called “Prospective-anticipatory learning using support schemes with commented control of the educational process.” Lysenkova developed a unique method for developing the thinking of children of primary school age. This system allows them to learn successfully, joyfully and easily. It highlights elements of technology that allow for successful advanced learning of children.

Support diagrams- this is the first driving force in Lysenkova’s technique. The technology for their use has been clearly developed. Supporting diagrams include the actual diagrams, conventional signs, tables, flashcards, etc. The supporting function of these schemes is to organize and control the mental activity of students. Such support schemes are a good way to externally organize children’s mental activity. These diagrams become not just an illustration of educational material, but supports, a visual reinforcement of the teacher’s logical reasoning.

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Introduction

Chapter 1. The essence of traditional education

Chapter 2. The main contradictions of traditional teaching

Basic concepts and terms

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

A person is formed by the cultural environment - in its broadest sense. This is language and behavioral reactions, ideas and ideals, traditions and technologies... Everything that is the result of the evolution of humanity and surrounds us directly or indirectly - through books, television, rumors or other information flows.

However, understanding the above, we will interpret the education system (hereinafter referred to as ES) narrowly - as a system of public institutions (kindergarten, school, university, station young technicians, sports section, etc.), created specifically for the purpose of training and education. Let us only remember the very conditional division of these concepts - it is not for nothing that the British use a single “education”.

Adequacy cultural environment, that is, understanding it and active harmonious existence in it - this is what distinguishes Man. And if this is so, then the main function of SO is cultivation, that is, the transfer of the culture of society to the emerging, one might say, the emerging Man (literary cliche: the younger generation).

In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problem-based and programmed.

Each of these types has both positive and negative sides. However, there are clear supporters of both types of training. Often they absolutize the merits of their preferred training and do not fully take into account its shortcomings. As practice shows, the best results can be achieved only with an optimal combination of different types of training. An analogy can be made with the so-called technologies of intensive teaching of foreign languages. Their supporters often absolutize the benefits of suggestive (related to suggestion) methods of memorizing foreign words on a subconscious level, and, as a rule, are dismissive of traditional methods of teaching foreign languages. But the rules of grammar are not mastered by suggestion. They master long-established and now traditional teaching methods.

Today, the most common option is the traditional training option. The foundations of this type of training were laid almost four centuries ago by Y.A. Komensky (“The Great Didactics”) (Komensky Y.A., 2005).

The purpose of the work is to study the essence of traditional teaching.

Chapter 1. The essence of traditional education

The term “traditional education” implies, first of all, the class-lesson organization of education that developed in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by J.A. Komensky, which is still prevalent in schools around the world.

The distinctive features of traditional classroom technology are as follows:

Students of approximately the same age and level of preparation form a class, which remains largely constant for the entire period of schooling;

The class operates according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a consequence, children must come to school at the same time of year and at predetermined times of the day;

The basic unit of instruction is the lesson;

A lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one academic subject, topic, due to which students in the class work on the same material;

The work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: he evaluates the results of studies in his subject, the level of learning of each student individually, and at the end of the school year makes a decision on transferring students to the next grade;

Educational books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework. The academic year, the school day, the lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - attributes of the class-lesson system.

The undoubted advantage of traditional learning is the ability to convey a large amount of information in a short time. With such training, students acquire knowledge in a ready-made form without revealing ways to prove its truth. In addition, it involves the assimilation and reproduction of knowledge and its application in similar situations. Among the significant disadvantages of this type of training is its focus on to a greater extent on memory, not on thinking. This training also does little to promote the development of creative abilities, independence, and activity. The most typical tasks are the following: insert, highlight, underline, remember, reproduce, solve by example, etc. The educational and cognitive process is largely reproductive in nature, as a result of which students develop a reproductive style of cognitive activity. Therefore, it is often called the “school of memory.” As practice shows, the volume of communicated information exceeds the ability to assimilate it (the contradiction between the content and procedural components of the learning process). In addition, there is no opportunity to adapt the pace of learning to the various individual psychological characteristics of students (the contradiction between frontal learning and the individual nature of knowledge acquisition). It is necessary to note some features of the formation and development of learning motivation with this type of training.

Chapter 2. The main contradictions of traditional education

A.A. Verbitsky identified the following contradictions of traditional teaching:

1. The contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (and therefore the student himself) to the past, objectified in the sign systems of the “fundamentals of sciences,” and the orientation of the subject of learning to the future content of professional practical activities and the whole culture. The future appears for the student in the form of an abstract, non-motivating prospect for the application of knowledge, so learning has no personal meaning for him. Turning to the past, which is fundamentally known, “cut out” from the spatio-temporal context (past - present - future) deprives the student of the opportunity to encounter the unknown, with a problematic situation - the situation of generating thinking.

2. The duality of educational information - it acts as a part of culture and at the same time only as a means of its development and personal development. The resolution of this contradiction lies on the path of overcoming the “abstract method of school” and modeling in the educational process such real conditions of life and activity that would allow the student to “return” to culture enriched intellectually, spiritually and practically, and thereby become the cause of the development of culture itself.

3. The contradiction between the integrity of culture and its mastery by the subject through many subject areas - academic disciplines as representatives of sciences. This tradition is consolidated by the division of school teachers (into subject teachers) and the departmental structure of the university. As a result, instead of a holistic picture of the world, the student receives fragments of a “broken mirror” that he himself is not able to collect.

4. The contradiction between the way culture exists as a process and its representation in teaching in the form of static sign systems. Training appears as a technology for transmitting ready-made educational material, alienated from the dynamics of cultural development, taken out of context as the upcoming independent life and activities, and from the current needs of the individual himself. As a result, not only the individual, but also the culture finds itself outside the development processes.

5. The contradiction between the social form of existence of culture and the individual form of its appropriation by students. In traditional pedagogy, it is not allowed, since the student does not combine his efforts with others to produce a joint product - knowledge. Being close to others in a group of students, everyone "dies alone." Moreover, for helping others, the student is punished (by reprimanding the “hint”), which encourages his individualistic behavior.

It is the act (and not the individual objective action) that should be considered as the unit of the student’s activity.

An act is a socially conditioned and morally normalized action, which has both an objective and sociocultural component, presupposing a response from another person, taking this response into account and correcting one’s own behavior. Such an exchange of actions presupposes the subordination of the subjects of communication to certain moral principles and norms of relations between people, mutual consideration of their positions, interests and moral values. Under this condition, the gap between training and education is overcome, the problem of the relationship between training and education is removed. After all, no matter what a person does, no matter what objective, technological action he performs, he always “acts” because he enters into the fabric of culture and social relations.

Many of the above problems are successfully solved in problem-based learning.

Until now, the strongest, most gifted children study in physics and mathematics classes or in natural science classes. And this is connected, first of all, with the parental, and our teachers’, mentality, and secondly with the real demand for specialists: programmers, for example, are needed more than art critics.

The basis of traditional education is the principles formulated by J. Komensky:

scientific nature (there can be no false knowledge, only incomplete knowledge);

conformity with nature (learning is determined by the student’s development and is not forced);

consistency and systematicity (linear logic of the learning process, from particular to general);

accessibility (from known to unknown, from easy to difficult);

strength (repetition is the mother of learning);

consciousness and activity (know the task set by the teacher and be active in executing commands);

principle of visibility;

the principle of connection between theory and practice;

taking into account age and individual characteristics.

Like any learning technology, traditional learning has its strengths and weaknesses. The positive aspects primarily include:

systematic nature of training;

ordered, logically correct presentation of material;

organizational clarity;

optimal expenditure of resources during mass training.

But at the end of the 20th century, pedagogy approached the need to transition to student-centered education, since society as a whole places demands on school graduates to be ready to make an informed and responsible choice in a variety of life situations. The achievement by an individual of such qualities is declared to be the main goal of training and education, in contrast to the formalized transfer of knowledge and social norms to the student in traditional technology.

Currently, there is a problem - the need to increase the efficiency of the educational process, and especially that side of it that is associated with the humanization of education, the development of the student’s personal potential, and the prevention of dead ends in his development. A decrease in learning motivation, school overload, widespread ill health of schoolchildren, and their rejection from the learning process are associated not only with the imperfect content of education, but also with the difficulties that teachers experience in organizing and conducting the learning process.

The problem with today's schools is not the lack of a sufficient number of new textbooks, teaching aids and programs - an unprecedented number of them have appeared in recent years, and many of them do not stand up to criticism from a didactic point of view. The problem is to provide the teacher with a selection methodology and a mechanism for implementing the selected content in the educational process. Individual forms and methods of teaching are being replaced by holistic educational technologies in general and learning technologies in particular.

traditional training motivation information

Basic concepts and terms

The cultural environment is language and behavioral reactions, ideas and ideals, traditions and technologies.

Traditional education is, first of all, a classroom-lesson organization of education that developed in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by J.A. Komensky, which is still predominant in schools around the world.

Knowledge is the result of a person’s cognitive, mental activity in the form of ideas, judgments, concepts, categories, ideas, theories about the world around him and about the person himself (including the process of thinking).

The reproductive style of cognitive activity is most often a simplified understanding of the organization of cognitive processes, features of assimilation, and cognitive activity.

Educational activity is the leading activity at school age, during which the formation of basic mental processes and personality traits occurs, new formations appear that correspond to age (arbitrariness, reflection, self-control, internal plan of action).

An act is a socially conditioned and morally normalized action, which has both an objective and sociocultural component, presupposing a response from another person, taking this response into account and correcting one’s own behavior.

Conclusion

So, in pedagogy it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative sides.

Today, the most common type of training is the traditional one. The foundations of this type of training were laid almost four centuries ago by Y.A. Comenius ("The Great Didactics").

The term “traditional education” implies, first of all, the class-lesson organization of education that developed in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, and is still predominant in schools around the world.

Traditional teaching has a number of contradictions (A.A. Verbitsky). Among them, one of the main ones is the contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (and therefore the student himself) to the past, embodied in the sign systems of the “foundations of sciences,” and the orientation of the subject of learning to the future content of professional and practical activity and the entire culture.

The principle of individualization, understood as the isolation of students in individual forms of work and according to individual programs, especially in the computer version, excludes the possibility of nurturing creative individuality, which, as is known, is achieved not through Robinsonade, but through “another person” in the process of dialogic communication and interaction, where a person performs not just objective actions, but actions.

List of used literature

1. Burton V. Principles of training and its organization. / Per. from English - M.: Pedagogy, 2014. - 220 p.

2. Verbitsky A.A. Active learning in higher school: contextual approach. M: Academy, 2015. - 192 p.

3. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M.: MPSI, 2012. - 240 p.

4. Galperin P.Ya. Teaching methods and mental development of the child. M.: Aspect-Press, 2014. - 278 p.

5. Dewey J. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking (How we think). / Per. from English - M.: INFRA-M, 2014. - 310 p.

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Traditional teaching technologies (TTT) are technologies built on the basis of class-lesson organization and explanatory and illustrative teaching methods, used according to tradition, often thoughtlessly, according to a model. Traditional education implies, first of all, the classroom-lesson organization of education that developed in the 18th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, and is still predominant in schools around the world.

Distinctive features of traditional classroom technology are:

• — students of approximately the same age and level of training form a class, which retains a largely constant composition for the entire period of schooling;
• — the class works according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a consequence, children must come to school at the same time of year and at predetermined times of the day;
• - the main unit of the lesson is the lesson;
• - a lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one academic subject, topic, due to which students work on the same material;
• — the teacher supervises the work of the student in the lesson: he evaluates the results of his studies in his subject, the level of learning of each student individually, and at the end of the school year makes a decision on transferring the student to the next class;
• — educational books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework.

The academic year, the school day, the lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - the attributes of the class-lesson system,

Classification parameters of TTO: by level of application - general pedagogical; on a philosophical basis - pedagogy of coercion; according to the main factor of development - sociogenic (with the assumption of a biogenic factor); according to the concept of assimilation - associative-reflector - naya based on suggestion (sample, example); in terms of orientation towards personal structures - informational, focused on the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities (ZUN); by the nature of the content - secular, technocratic, general education, didactocentric; by type of control - traditional classic + TSO; by organizational forms - classroom, academic; in approach to the child - authoritarian; according to the predominant method - explanatory and illustrative; by category of trainees - mass.

Target orientations. Learning objectives are a moving category that includes certain components depending on a number of conditions. For example, in Soviet pedagogy, learning goals were formulated as follows:

1. — formation of a knowledge system, mastery of the basics of science;
2. — formation of the foundations of a scientific worldview;
3. — comprehensive and harmonious development of each student;
4. — education of ideologically convinced fighters for communism, for the bright future of all humanity;
5. - education of conscious and highly educated people capable of both physical and mental work.

Thus, by their nature, the goals of TTO represent the education of an individual with given properties. In terms of the content of the goals of TTO, they are focused primarily on the assimilation of knowledge and skills, and not on the development of the individual (comprehensive development was a declaration). In the modern mass Russian school, the goals have changed somewhat - ideologization has been eliminated, the slogan of comprehensive harmonious development has been removed, changes have occurred in the composition of moral education, but the paradigm of presenting the goal in the form of planned qualities (learning standards) has remained the same.

A mass school with traditional technology remains a “school of knowledge”, retains the primacy of the individual’s awareness over his culture, the predominance of the rational-logical side of cognition over the sensory-emotional and creative.

The conceptual basis of TTO is the principles of pedagogy formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, i.e. principles:

• — scientific nature (there can be no false knowledge, there can only be incomplete knowledge);
• — conformity with nature (learning is determined by development and is not forced);
• — consistency and systematicity (sequential linear logic of the process, from the particular to the general);
• - accessibility (from the known to the unknown, from easy to difficult, mastering ready-made knowledge);
• — strength (repetition is the mother of learning);
• — consciousness and activity (know the task set by the teacher and be active in executing commands);
• — visibility (involving various senses in perception);
• - connection between theory and practice (a certain part of the educational process is devoted to the application of knowledge);
• — taking into account age and individual characteristics.

Training in TTO is understood as a transfer process

knowledge, abilities and skills, social experience from older generations to the younger generation. This holistic process includes goals, content, methods, and means.

Features of the content. The content of education in the domestic TTO developed back in the years of Soviet power (it was determined by the tasks of industrialization of the country, the pursuit of the level of technically developed capitalist countries, the general role of scientific and technological progress) and to this day is technocratic (meaning TTO in the Russian Federation) . Knowledge is addressed mainly to the rational principle of the individual, and not to spirituality and morality. 75% of school subjects are aimed at developing the left hemisphere, only 3% is allocated to aesthetic subjects, and very little attention was paid to spiritual education in the Soviet school (data from G.K. Selevko, 1998). The traditional education system remains largely uniform and non-variable, despite the declaration of freedom of choice and variability. Planning of training content is centralized.

Basic educational plans are based on uniform standards for the country. Academic disciplines (fundamentals of science) define “corridors” within which (and only within) the child is allowed to move. Education has an overwhelming priority over education. Academic and educational subjects are not interconnected. Club forms of work account for 3% of academic funding. IN educational work The pedagogy of events and the negativism of educational influences are flourishing.

Features of the technique. TTO represents, first of all, an authoritarian pedagogy of demands, the teaching is very weakly connected with inner life the student, with his diverse demands and needs, there are no conditions for the manifestation of individual abilities, creative manifestations of personality. The authoritarianism of the learning process is manifested in the regulation of activities, the compulsory nature of teaching procedures (“the school rapes the individual”); centralization of control; targeting the average student (“school kills talent”). In such a system, the student is a subordinate object of teaching influences, the student “must”, the student is not yet a full-fledged personality, a spiritually unspiritual “cog”. The teacher is the commander, the only initiative person, the judge (“always right”); the elder (parent) teaches; “with an object for children”, “striking arrows” style. Methods for acquiring knowledge are based on: communication of ready-made knowledge, learning from a model, inductive logic from the particular to the general, mechanical memory, verbal presentation and reproductive reproduction.

The learning process as an activity in technical education is characterized by a lack of independence and weak motivation for the student’s educational work. As part of the child’s educational activity, there is no independent goal setting; learning goals are set by the teacher, activity planning is carried out from the outside, imposed on the student against his wishes; The final analysis and assessment of the child’s activities is carried out not by the child himself, but by the teacher or other adults. Under these conditions, the stage of realizing educational goals turns into work “under the lash” with all its negative consequences(alienation of a child from school, education of laziness, deceit, conformism - “school disfigures the personality”).

Evaluation of student activities. Traditional pedagogy has developed criteria for quantitative (in the Russian Federation - five-point, in the Republic of Belarus - ten-point) assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities of students in academic subjects; requirements for assessment: individual character, differentiated approach, systematic control and evaluation, comprehensiveness, variety of forms, unity of requirements, objectivity, motivation, publicity.

However, in the school practice of TTO, negative aspects of the traditional grading system are revealed. Quantitative assessment - marking - often becomes a means of coercion, a tool of teacher power over the student, psychological and social pressure on the student. A mark as a result of cognitive activity is often identified with the personality as a whole, sorting students into “good” and “bad.” The names “C” and “B” evoke a feeling of inferiority, humiliation, or lead to indifference and indifference to learning. A student, based on his mediocre or satisfactory grades, first makes a conclusion about the inferiority of his knowledge, abilities, and then his personality (Self-concept).

TTO also includes the lecture-seminar-credit system (form) of education: first, the educational material is presented to the class using the lecture method, and then it is studied (learned, applied) in seminars, practical and laboratory classes, and the result of assimilation is checked in the form of tests.

• The distinctive features of traditional classroom technology are as follows:
  • students of approximately the same age and level of training form a class, which remains largely constant for the entire period of schooling;
  • The class works according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a consequence, children must come to school at the same time of year and at predetermined times of the day;
  • the basic unit of study is the lesson;
  • a lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one academic subject, topic, due to which students in the class work on the same material;
  • The work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: he evaluates the results of studies in his subject, the level of learning of each student individually, and at the end of the school year makes a decision on transferring students to the next grade;
  • Educational books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework. Academic year, school day, lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - attributes Classroom system - organization of training sessions in educational institution, in which training is carried out frontally in classes with a constant composition of students according to a schedule valid for a certain period of time, and the main form of classes is a lesson.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> class-lesson system(see Media Library).
  • The development of ways to intensify the mental activity of students led in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. to the introduction of certain educational methods into teaching:
    • heuristic (G. Armstrong);
    • experimental-heuristic (A.Ya. Gerd);
    • laboratory-heuristic (F.A. Wintergalter);
    • method of laboratory lessons (K.P. Yagodovsky);
    • natural science education (A.P. Pinkevich), etc.

  All of the above methods B.E. Raikov, due to the commonality of their essence, replaced them with the term “research method”. The research method of teaching, which intensified the practical activities of students, has become a kind of antipode to the traditional method. Its use created an atmosphere of enthusiasm for learning at school, giving students the joy of independent search and discovery and, most importantly, ensured the development of children’s cognitive independence and their creative activity. Usage research method training as universal in the early 30s. XX century was found to be incorrect. It was proposed to build training to form a knowledge system that does not violate Logic (Greek logike) - the science of methods of proof and refutation; totality scientific theories, each of which discusses certain methods of proof and refutation. Aristotle is considered the founder of logic. There are inductive and deductive logic, and in the latter - classical, intuitionistic, constructive, modal, etc. All these theories are united by the desire to catalog such methods of reasoning that lead from true judgments-premises to true judgments-consequences; Cataloging is carried out, as a rule, within the framework of logical calculus. Applications of logic in computational mathematics, automata theory, linguistics, computer science, etc. play a special role in accelerating scientific and technological progress. See also Mathematical logic.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">subject logic. However, the massive use of illustrative teaching and dogmatic memorization did not contribute to the development of school teaching. The search began for ways to intensify the educational process. A certain influence on the development of theory Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. The goal is to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method of active interaction of the subject with the problematically presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he becomes familiar with the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, and creatively assimilate knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem-based learning During this period, research by psychologists (S.L. Rubinshtein) was influential, substantiating the dependence of human mental activity on problem solving, and the concepts of problem-based learning that developed in pedagogy on the basis of a pragmatic understanding of thinking.
  In American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. There are two main concepts of problem-based learning. J. Dewey proposed replacing all types and forms of education with independent learning by schoolchildren through problem solving, with emphasis placed on their educational and practical form (Dewey J., 1999; abstract). The essence of the second concept is the mechanical transfer of psychological findings to the learning process. V. Burton () believed that learning is “the acquisition of new reactions or changing old ones” and reduced the learning process to simple and complex reactions, without taking into account the influence of the environment and educational conditions on the development of the student’s thinking.

  John Dewey

  Having begun his experiments in one of the Chicago schools in 1895, J. Dewey focused on the development of students’ own activity. He soon became convinced that education, structured taking into account the interests of schoolchildren and related to their life needs, gives much better results than verbal (verbal, book) education based on memorizing knowledge. J. Dewey's main contribution to learning theory is his concept of the “complete act of thinking.” According to the author’s philosophical and psychological views, a person begins to think when he encounters difficulties, the overcoming of which is important for him.
  Properly structured learning, according to J. Dewey, should be problematic. At the same time, the problems themselves posed to students are fundamentally different from the proposed traditional educational tasks - “imaginary problems” that have low educational and educational value and, most often, are far behind what students are interested in.
  Compared to the traditional system, J. Dewey proposed bold innovations and unexpected solutions. The place of “book learning” was taken by the principle of active learning, the basis of which is the student’s own cognitive activity. The place of the active teacher was taken by an assistant teacher, who does not impose either content or methods of work on students, but only helps to overcome difficulties when the students themselves turn to him for help. Instead of a stable curriculum common to all, indicative programs were introduced, the content of which was determined only in the most general terms by the teacher. The place of the oral and written word was taken by theoretical and practical classes, in which independent research students.
  School system, based on the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge, he contrasted learning “by doing”, i.e. one in which all knowledge was derived from practical amateur performances and personal experience child. In schools that worked according to the J. Dewey system, there was no permanent program with a consistent system of subjects studied, but only the knowledge necessary for the life experience of students was selected. According to the scientist, the student should engage in those types of activities that allowed civilization to reach the modern level. Therefore, attention should be concentrated on constructive activities: teaching children to cook, sew, introduce them to needlework, etc. Information of a more general nature is concentrated around this utilitarian knowledge and skills.
  J. Dewey adhered to the so-called pedocentric theory and teaching methods. According to it, the role of the teacher in the processes of teaching and upbringing comes down mainly to guiding the independent activities of students and awakening their curiosity. In J. Dewey's methodology, along with labor processes, games, improvisations, excursions, amateur performances, and home economics occupied a large place. He contrasted the development of their individuality with instilling discipline in students.
  In a labor school, labor, according to Dewey, is the focus of all educational work. Performing various types of work and acquiring the necessary for labor activity knowledge, children thereby prepare for the future life.
  Pedocentrism (from the Greek pais, paidos - child and Latin centrum - center) is the principle of a number of pedagogical systems (J.J. Rousseau, free education, etc.), requiring the organization of training and education without relying on curricula and programs, and only on the basis of the child’s immediate motives.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> Pedocentric concept J. Dewey had a great influence on the general nature of the educational work of schools in the USA and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 20s, which was expressed in the so-called comprehensive programs and in the project method.

  Greatest impact on development modern concept Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. The goal is to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method of active interaction of the subject with the problematically presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he becomes familiar with the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, and creatively assimilate knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem-based learning contributed by the work of an American psychologist (Bruner J., 1977; abstract). It is based on the ideas of structuring educational material and the dominant role of intuitive thinking in the process of assimilation of new knowledge as the basis Heuristic - " onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> heuristic thinking. Bruner paid main attention to the structure of knowledge, which should include all the necessary elements of the knowledge system and determine the direction of the student’s development.

  • Modern American theories of “learning by solving problems” (W. Alexander, P. Halverson, etc.), in contrast to the theory of J. Dewey, have their own characteristics:
    • they do not overemphasize the importance of student “self-expression” and diminish the role of the teacher;
    • the principle of collective problem solving is affirmed, in contrast to the extreme individualization observed previously;
    • the method of solving problems in teaching is given a supporting role.

  In the 70-80s. XX century The concept of problem-based learning by the English psychologist E. de Bono, who focuses on six levels of thinking, became widespread.
  In the development of the theory of problem-based learning, teachers in Poland, Bulgaria, Germany and other countries have achieved certain results. Thus, a Polish teacher (Okon V., 1968, 1990) studied the conditions for the emergence of problem situations using the material of various educational subjects and, together with Ch. Kupisiewicz, proved the advantage of learning through problem solving for the development of students’ mental abilities. Problem-based learning was understood by Polish teachers as only one of the teaching methods. Bulgarian teachers (I. Petkov, M. Markov) considered mainly issues of an applied nature, focusing on the organization of problem-based learning in primary school.

  • Domestic experience. Theory Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. The goal is to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method of active interaction of the subject with the problematically presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he becomes familiar with the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, and creatively assimilate knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem-based learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century in connection with the search for ways to activate, stimulate students’ cognitive activity, and develop student independence, however, I encountered certain difficulties:
    • in traditional didactics, the task of “teaching to think” was not considered as an independent one; the focus of teachers’ attention was on the issues of accumulating knowledge and developing memory;
    • the traditional system of teaching methods could not “overcome spontaneity in the formation of theoretical thinking in children” (V.V. Davydov);
    • The problem of the development of thinking was studied mainly by psychologists; the pedagogical theory of the development of thinking and abilities was not developed.

  As a result, the domestic mass school has not accumulated the practice of using methods specifically aimed at developing Thinking - the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects. Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. Allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships real world, which cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of cognition. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow - by psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling certain mental functions.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">thinking . Of great importance for the development of the theory of problem-based learning were the works of psychologists who concluded that mental development is characterized not only by the volume and quality of acquired knowledge, but also by the structure of thought processes, a system of logical operations and Mental actions are various human actions performed in the internal plane of consciousness.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> mental actions which the student owns (S.L. Rubinshtein, N.A. Menchinskaya, T.V. Kudryavtsev), and which revealed the role of the problem situation in thinking and learning (Matyushkin A.M., 1972; abstract).
  The experience of using individual elements of problem-based learning in school was studied by M.I. Makhmutov, I.Ya. Lerner, N.G. Dairi, D.V. Vilkeev (see Khrest. 8.2). The starting points for the development of the theory of problem-based learning were the provisions of the theory of activity (S.L. Rubinshtein, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, V.V. Davydov). Problems in learning were considered as one of the regularities mental activity students. Methods have been developed for creating a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by the objective insufficiency of previously acquired knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity by students to solve the emerging cognitive problem.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem situations in various educational subjects and found criteria for assessing the complexity of problematic cognitive tasks. Gradually spreading, problem-based learning penetrated from secondary schools into secondary and higher vocational schools. Methods of problem-based learning are being improved, in which one of the important components becomes Improvisation (from Latin improvisus - unexpected, sudden) - composing poetry, music, etc. at the time of execution; speaking with something not prepared in advance; a work created in this way.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">improvisation, especially when solving problems of a communicative nature (). A system of teaching methods arose in which the creation of a problem situation by the teacher and the solution of problems by students became the main condition for the development of their thinking. This system distinguishes between general methods (monological, demonstrative, dialogical, heuristic, research, programmed, algorithmic) and binary ones - the rules of interaction between teacher and students. On the basis of this system of methods, some new ones were developed. educational technologies(V.F. Shatalov, P.M. Erdniev, G.A. Rudik, etc.).

  8.2.2. The essence of problem-based learning

  Today, problem-based learning is the most promising and appropriate to socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions.
  What is the essence of problem-based learning? It is interpreted both as a principle of learning and as new type educational process, both as a teaching method and as a new didactic system.
  Under problem-based learning This is usually understood as an organization of educational activities that involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them.(see Fig. 5) .
  Problem-based learning consists of creating problem situations, understanding, accepting and resolving these situations in the course of joint activities of students and teachers, with optimal independence of the former and under the general guiding guidance of the latter, as well as in students mastering generalized knowledge and general principles of solution in the process of such activities problematic tasks. The principle of problematic nature brings together the learning process with the processes of cognition, research, and creative thinking (Makhmutov M.I., 1975; abstract).
  Problem-based learning (like any other learning) can contribute to two goals:
  First goal— to form in students the necessary system of knowledge, skills and abilities.
  Second goal— to achieve a high level of development of schoolchildren, development of the ability for self-learning, self-education.
  Both of these tasks can be implemented with great success precisely in the process of problem-based learning, since the assimilation of educational material occurs during the active search activity of students, in the process of solving a system of problem-cognitive tasks.
  It is important to note another important goal of problem-based learning - to form a special style of Thinking - the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects. Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. Allows you to obtain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the real world that cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of cognition. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow - by psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling certain mental functions.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> mental activity, research activity and student independence ().
  The peculiarity of problem-based learning is that it seeks to make maximum use of psychological data on the close relationship between the processes of learning (learning), cognition, research and thinking. From this point of view, the learning process should model the process of productive thinking, the central link of which is the possibility of discovery, the possibility of creativity (Ponomarev Ya.A., 1999; abstract).
  Essence Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. The goal is to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method of active interaction of the subject with the problematically presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he becomes familiar with the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, and creatively assimilate knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem-based learning boils down to the fact that during the learning process the nature and structure of the student’s cognitive activity radically changes, leading to the development of the creative potential of the student’s personality. The main and characteristic feature of problem-based learning is a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by the objective insufficiency of the knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity previously acquired by students to solve the emerging cognitive problem.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problematic situation .

  • Its creation is based on the following provisions of modern psychology:
    • the thinking process has its source in a problematic situation;
    • problem thinking is carried out, first of all, as a process of solving a problem;
    • conditions for the development of thinking is the acquisition of new knowledge by solving a problem;
    • patterns of thinking and patterns of assimilation of new knowledge largely coincide.

  In problem-based learning, the teacher creates a problem situation, guides students to solve it, and organizes a search for a solution. Thus, the student is placed in the position of the subject of his learning and, as a result, he develops new knowledge and has new ways of acting. The difficulty of managing problem-based learning is that the emergence of a problem situation is an individual act, therefore the teacher is required to use a differentiated and individual approach. If in traditional teaching the teacher presents theoretical principles in a ready-made form, then in problem-based teaching he brings students to a contradiction and invites them to find a way to solve it themselves, confronts contradictions in practical activities, and sets out different points of view on the same issue (Development..., 1991 ; annotation). Typical tasks of problem-based learning: consider a phenomenon from different positions, make comparisons, generalizations, formulate conclusions from the situation, compare facts, formulate specific questions yourself (for generalization, justification, specification, logic of reasoning) (Fig. 6).
  Let's look at an example. 6th grade students are not familiar with the concept of verb types. All other grammatical features of the verb (number, tense, transitivity, etc.) are known to them. The teacher draws the students’ attention to the board, where verbs are written in two columns with multi-colored chalk:

  At the first acquaintance with these verbs, students see inconsistencies between aspectual pairs.
  Question. By what grammatical feature do the verbs of the first and second columns differ?
  Formulation The problem is the awareness of the possibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation using the means of existing knowledge and experience.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">problems clarifies the nature of the students’ difficulty that arose when faced with a problem. Students' attempts to explain the difference between verbs based on updating previously acquired knowledge do not achieve their goal. Subsequently, the connection between data elements and goals is achieved by analyzing and explaining the data, i.e. the actual language (grammatical) material contained in the examples is analyzed. The goal (the concept of verb types) is gradually revealed as the problem is solved.
  As a number of studies have shown, there is a close relationship between a person’s search activity and his health (physical, mental).
  People with a poorly developed need for search live a less stressful life, their search activity is expressed only in specific external situations, when it is not possible, on the basis of well-developed forms of behavior, to satisfy other needs, both biological - for example, the need for security and daily bread, and social, for example, the need for prestige. If all basic desires are satisfied, you can seem to live relaxed and calm, not striving for anything in particular and, therefore, without running the risk of defeat and infringement. Giving up the search, if the search is not an internal urgent need, is given painlessly and calmly. However, this well-being is imaginary and conditional. This is only possible under ideal conditions of complete comfort. Our dynamic world does not provide such conditions to anyone - and this is quite natural, because the accumulation in society of people with low search activity would inevitably lead to social regression. And in a world where the need for search constantly arises, at least to satisfy primary needs, the lack of desire for search as such makes existence painful, because you constantly have to make an effort on yourself. Search, without bringing an experience of naturalness and satisfaction, becomes an unpleasant necessity for people with a low need for search and, of course, they succeed much worse than people with a high need for it. In addition, a person with low activity is less prepared to face life’s difficulties and more quickly gives up looking for a way out. difficult situations. And although this refusal is subjectively experienced by him not so hard, objectively the body’s resistance still decreases. In one of the countries, the fate of people was traced over a number of years, in whose character and behavior a feeling of apathy, indifference to life, and people with low activity prevailed. It turned out that on average they die at an earlier age than people who were initially active. And they die from causes that are not fatal for others. Let us remember Ilya Oblomov, a person with an extremely low need for search (since childhood, this need did not develop in him, because everything was given ready-made). He was quite happy with life, or rather, with his complete isolation from life, and died at a fairly young age for some unknown reason.
  The constant lack of search activity leads to the fact that the individual finds himself helpless in any encounter with difficulties or even with situations that are not perceived as difficulties in other conditions. So a low need for search not only makes life boring and useless, but also does not guarantee health and longevity.

  8.2.3. Problem situations as the basis of problem-based learning

  
  • Types of problem situations (see Fig. 7) that most often arise in the educational process:
    1. A problematic situation is created when a discrepancy is discovered between students’ existing knowledge systems and new requirements (between old knowledge and new facts, between lower and higher level knowledge, between everyday and scientific knowledge).
    2. Problem situations arise when it is necessary to make a diverse choice from the systems of existing knowledge of the only necessary system, the use of which alone can ensure correct solution proposed problem task.
    3. Problematic situations arise for students when they are faced with new practical conditions for using existing knowledge, when there is a search for ways to apply knowledge in practice.
    4. A problematic situation arises if there is a contradiction between a theoretically possible way to solve a problem and the practical impracticability or inexpediency of the chosen method, as well as between the practically achieved result of completing the task and the lack of theoretical justification.
    5. Problematic situations when solving technical problems arise when there is no direct correspondence between the schematic representation and the design of a technical device.
    6. Problematic situations are also created by the fact that there is a contradiction objectively inherent in the schematic diagrams between the static nature of the images themselves and the need to read dynamic processes in them ().
  • Rules for creating problem situations. To create a problem situation, you need the following:
    1. The student should be given a practical or theoretical task, during which he must discover new knowledge or actions to be learned. In this case, the following conditions must be observed:
       • the task is based on the knowledge and skills that the student has;
       • the unknown that needs to be discovered constitutes a general pattern to be learned, a general method of action or some General terms performing an action;
       • Completing a problem task should arouse the student’s need for acquired knowledge.
    2. The problem task offered to the student must correspond to his intellectual capabilities.
    3. The problem task must precede an explanation of the educational material to be mastered.
    4. The following can serve as problem tasks: a) educational tasks; b) questions; c) practical tasks, etc.
       However, one must not confuse a problem task and a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by the objective insufficiency of the knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity previously acquired by students to solve the emerging cognitive problem.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problematic situation. A problem task in itself is not a problem situation; it can cause a problem situation only under certain conditions.
    5. The same problem situation can be caused by different types of tasks.
    6. The teacher must formulate the problem situation that has arisen by pointing out to the student the reasons for his failure to complete the assigned practical educational task or the inability to explain to them certain demonstrated facts () (Khrest. 8.3).

  8.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning

  
  

  In programmed learning, learning is carried out as a clearly controlled process, since the material being studied is broken down into small, easily digestible doses. They are sequentially presented to the student for assimilation. Each dose is followed by an absorption check. The dose is absorbed - move on to the next one. This is the “step” of learning: presentation, assimilation, verification.
  Usually, when drawing up training programs, only the need for systematic feedback was taken into account from cybernetic requirements, and from psychological requirements - the individualization of the learning process. There was no consistency in the implementation of a specific model of the assimilation process. The most famous concept is B. Skinner, based on behaviorist theory - a direction in American psychology of the twentieth century that denies consciousness as a subject scientific research and reducing the psyche to various forms behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to stimuli external environment.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> behaviorist theory teaching that there is no significant difference between human learning and animal learning. In accordance with behaviorist theory, training programs must solve the problem of obtaining and reinforcing the correct response. To develop the correct reaction, the principle of breaking the process into small steps and the principle of a hint system are used. When breaking down the process, programmed complex behavior is broken down into its simplest elements (steps), each of which the student could complete without error. When a prompt system is included in the training program, the required reaction is first given in a ready-made form (maximum degree of prompting), then with the omission of individual elements (fading prompts), and at the end of the training a completely independent response is required (removal of the prompt). An example is memorizing a poem: at first the quatrain is given in full, then with the omission of one word, two words and an entire line. At the end of memorization, the student, having received four lines of ellipses instead of a quatrain, must reproduce the poem independently.
  To consolidate the reaction, the principle of immediate reinforcement is used (using verbal encouragement, providing a sample to ensure the correctness of the answer, etc.) of each correct step, as well as the principle of repeated repetition of reactions.
  (http://www.modelschool.ru/index.html Model; see the School website tomorrow),
  (http://www.kindgarden.ru/what.htm; see the material “What is the School of Tomorrow?”).

  8.3.2. Types of training programs

  Training programs built on a behavioral basis are divided into: a) linear, developed by Skinner, and b) branched programs by N. Crowder.
  1. Linear programmed learning system, originally developed by the American psychologist B. Skinner in the early 60s. XX century based on the behaviorist direction in psychology.

  • He put forward the following requirements for the organization of training:
    • In learning, the student must move through a sequence of carefully chosen and placed “steps.”
    • Training should be structured in such a way that the student is “busy and busy” all the time, so that he not only perceives the educational material, but also operates with it.
    • Before moving on to study subsequent material, the student must master the previous one well.
    • The student needs to be helped by dividing the material into small portions ("steps" of the program), through hints, encouragement, etc.
    • Each student's correct answer must be reinforced using feedback - not only to develop certain behavior, but also to maintain interest in learning.

  According to this system, students go through all the steps of the taught program sequentially, in the order in which they are given in the program. The tasks in each step are to fill in one or more words in a blank in an informational text. After this, the student must check his solution with the correct one, which was previously closed in some way. If the student's answer is correct, then he must move on to the next step; if his answer does not coincide with the correct one, then he must complete the task again. Thus, the linear system of programmed learning is based on the principle of learning, which involves error-free execution of tasks. Therefore, the program steps and assignments are designed for the weakest student. According to B. Skinner, the student learns mainly by completing tasks, and confirmation of the correctness of the task serves as reinforcement to stimulate the student’s further activity (see animation).
  Linear programs are designed for error-free steps of all students, i.e. must correspond to the capabilities of the weakest of them. Because of this, program correction is not provided: all students receive the same sequence of frames (tasks) and must complete the same steps, i.e. move along the same line (hence the name of the programs - linear).
  2. Extensive programmed training program. Its founder is the American teacher N. Crowder. In these programs, which have become widespread, in addition to the main program designed for strong students, additional programs(auxiliary branches), to one of which the student is directed in case of difficulties. Branched programs provide individualization (adaptation) of training not only in terms of the pace of progress, but also in terms of the level of difficulty. In addition, these programs open up greater opportunities for the formation of rational types of cognitive activity than linear ones, which limit cognitive activity mainly to perception and memory.
  Test tasks in the steps of this system consist of a task or question and a set of several answers, of which usually one is correct, and the rest are incorrect, containing typical errors. The student must choose one answer from this set. If he chooses the correct answer, he receives reinforcement in the form of confirmation of the correctness of the answer and an instruction to move on to the next step of the program. If he chose the wrong answer, the essence of the mistake made is explained to him, and he is instructed to return to one of the previous steps of the program or go to some subroutine.
  In addition to these two main systems of programmed training, many others have been developed, which to one degree or another use a linear or branched principle, or both of these principles, to construct a sequence of steps in a training program.
  General disadvantage programs built on Behaviorism (from the English behavior, behavior) - a direction in American psychology of the twentieth century that denies consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli. A direction in psychology, which began with an article by the American psychologist J. Watson " s="" r="" xx="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> behaviorist basis, lies in the impossibility of managing internal, mental activity students, control over which is limited to registration of the final result (answer). From a cybernetic point of view, these programs carry out control according to the “black box” principle, which in relation to human training is unproductive, since the main goal in training is the formation of rational methods of cognitive activity. This means that not only the answers must be controlled, but also the paths leading to them. Practice Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or a teaching machine that replaces him).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> programmed learning showed the unsuitability of linear and insufficient productivity of branched programs. Further improvements to training programs within the framework of the behaviorist model of education did not lead to significant improvements in results.

  8.3.3. Development of programmed training in domestic science and practice

  In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed learning were actively studied, and achievements were introduced into practice in the 70s. XX century One of the leading experts is Moscow University professor Nina Fedorovna Talyzina ( Talyzina N.F. Managing the process of knowledge acquisition. - M.: MSU, 1983. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> Talyzina N.F., 1969; 1975). In the domestic version, this type of training is based on the so-called Theory of the gradual formation of mental actions - the doctrine of complex multifaceted changes associated with the formation of new actions, images and concepts in a person, put forward by P.Ya. Galperin.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> theories of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts of P.Ya. Galperin (Galperin P.Ya., 1998; abstract) and theories Cybernetics (from the Greek kybernetike - the art of management) - the science of management, communication and information processing.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">cybernetics. The implementation of programmed learning involves identifying specific and logical thinking methods for each subject being studied, indicating rational methods of cognitive activity in general. Only after this is it possible to draw up training programs that are aimed at developing these types of cognitive activity, and through them the knowledge that makes up the content of a given educational subject.

  8.3.4. Advantages and disadvantages of programmed learning

  Programming training has a number of advantages: small doses are easily absorbed, the pace of assimilation is chosen by the student, high results are ensured, rational methods of mental action are developed, and the ability to think logically is cultivated. However, it also has a number of disadvantages, for example:
  • does not fully contribute to the development of independence in learning;
  • requires a lot of time;
  • applicable only for algorithmically solvable cognitive problems;
  • ensures the acquisition of knowledge embedded in the algorithm and does not contribute to the acquisition of new ones. At the same time, excessive algorithmization of learning hinders the formation of productive cognitive activity.
  • During the years of greatest enthusiasm for programmed learning - the 60-70s. XX century - a number of programming systems and many different teaching machines and devices were developed. But at the same time, critics of programmed learning also appeared. E. Laben summed up all the objections to programmed learning:
    • programmed learning does not take advantage of the positive aspects of group learning;
    • it does not contribute to the development of student initiative, since the program seems to lead him by the hand all the time;
    • with the help of programmed training it is possible to teach only simple material at the cramming level;
    • learning theory based on reinforcement is worse than one based on mental gymnastics;
    • in contrast to the statements of some American researchers, programmed training is not revolutionary, but conservative, since it is bookish and verbal;
    • programmed training ignores the achievements of psychology, which has been studying the structure of brain activity and the dynamics of learning for more than 20 years;
    • programmed learning does not provide an opportunity to get a holistic picture of the subject being studied and is “learning in pieces” ().

  Although not all of these objections are completely fair, they undoubtedly have some basis. Therefore, interest in programmed learning in the 70-80s. XX century began to decline and its revival occurred in recent years based on the use of new generations of computer equipment.
  As already noted, the most widespread are various systems Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or a teaching machine that replaces him).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> programmed learning received in the 50-60s. XX century, later they began to use only certain elements of programmed training, mainly for monitoring knowledge, consultations and training skills. In recent years, the ideas of programmed learning have begun to be revived on a new technical basis (computers, television systems, microcomputers, etc.) in the form of computer, or electronic, learning. The new technical base makes it possible to almost completely automate the learning process, building it as a fairly free dialogue between the student and the learning system. The role of the teacher in this case consists mainly in the development, adjustment, correction and improvement of the training program, as well as conducting individual elements of machine-free learning. Many years of experience have confirmed that programmed training, and especially computer-based training, provides a fairly high level of not only learning, but also the development of students, arousing their undiminished interest.

  *******

  In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of them, as already mentioned, has both positive and negative sides. Traditional training does not provide effective development mental abilities of students because it is based on the laws of reproductive thinking, and not creative activity.
  Today, problem-based learning is the most promising and appropriate to socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions.

  Summary

  • In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative sides.
  • Today, the most common type of training is the traditional one. The foundations of this type of training were laid almost four centuries ago by Y.A. Comenius ("The Great Didactics").
    • The term “traditional education” implies, first of all, the classroom-lesson organization of education that developed in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, and is still predominant in schools around the world.
    • Traditional teaching has a number of contradictions (A.A. Verbitsky). Among them, one of the main ones is the contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (and therefore the student himself) to the past, embodied in the sign systems of the “foundations of sciences,” and the orientation of the subject of learning to the future content of professional and practical activity and the entire culture.
  • Today, problem-based learning is the most promising and appropriate to socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions.
    • Problem-based learning is usually understood as such an organization of educational activities that involves the creation, under the guidance of a teacher, of problem situations and the active independent activity of students to resolve them.
    • In American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. There are two basic concepts of problem-based learning (J. Dewey, W. Burton).
    • The pedocentric concept of J. Dewey had a great influence on the general nature of the educational work of schools in the USA and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 20s, which was expressed in the so-called comprehensive programs and in the project method.
    • The theory of problem-based learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century in connection with the search for ways to activate and stimulate students’ cognitive activity, and develop student independence.
    • The basis of problem-based learning is a problem situation. It characterizes a certain mental state of the student that arises in the process of performing a task, for which there are no ready-made means and which requires the acquisition of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions for its implementation.
  • Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or a teaching machine that replaces him).
    • The idea of ​​programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. XX century American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the efficiency of managing the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology.
    • Training programs built on a behavioral basis are divided into: a) linear, developed by B. Skinner, and b) the so-called branched programs of N. Crowder.
    • In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed training were actively studied, and the achievements of training were introduced into practice in the 70s. XX century One of the leading experts in this field is Moscow University professor N.F. Talyzin.

  Glossary of terms

  1. Cybernetics
  2. Class-lesson education system
  3. Motive for success
  4. Tutorial
  5. Problem
  6. Problem situation
  7. Problem-based learning
  8. Programmed training
  9. Contradiction
  10. Traditional training

  Self-test questions

  1. What is the essence of traditional learning?
  2. Name the distinctive features of traditional classroom-lesson teaching technology.
  3. Name the advantages and disadvantages of traditional education.
  4. What are the main contradictions of traditional teaching?
  5. Indicate the main historical aspects of problem-based learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.
  6. What are the features of J. Dewey's problem-based learning?
  7. What is characteristic of the development of problem-based learning in domestic science and practice?
  8. What is the essence of problem-based learning?
  9. Name the types of problem situations that most often arise in the educational process.
  10. In what cases do problematic situations arise?
  11. Name the basic rules for creating problem situations in the educational process.
  12. Name the main advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning.
  13. What is the essence of programmed learning?
  14. Who is the author of programmed learning?
  15. Describe the types of training programs.
  16. What are the features of extensive programmed learning programs?
  17. What is characteristic of the behavioral approach to programmed learning?
  18. What is characteristic of the development of programmed learning in domestic science and practice?
  19. Why has programmed learning not been developed as it should be?

  Bibliography

  1. Atkinson R. Human memory and the learning process: Trans. from English M., 1980.
  2. Burton V. Principles of training and its organization. M., 1934.
  3. Bruner J. Psychology of cognition. M., 1977.
  4. Verbitsky A.A. Active learning in higher education: a contextual approach. M., 1991.
  5. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.
  6. Galperin P.Ya. Teaching methods and mental development of the child. M., 1985.
  7. Gurova L.L. Psychological analysis of problem solving. Voronezh, 1976.
  8. Davydov V.V. Developmental learning theory. M., 1996.
  9. Dewey J. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking (How we think): Trans. from English M., 1999.
  10. Komensky Ya.A. Selected pedagogical works. M., 1955.
  11. Kudryavtsev T.V. Psychology of creative thinking. M., 1975.
  12. Kulyutkin Yu.N. Heuristic methods in the structure of decisions. M., 1970.
  13. Lerner I.Ya. Problem-based learning. M., 1974.
  14. Lipkina A.I. Self-esteem of a schoolchild and his memory // Issues. psychology. 1981. No. 3.
  15. Markova A.K., Matis T.A., Orlov A.B. Formation of learning motivation. M., 1990.
  16. Matyushkin A.M. Problem situations in thinking and learning. M., 1972.
  17. Makhmutov M.I. Problem-based learning. M., 1975.
  18. Okon V. Introduction to general didactics: Trans. from Polish M., 1990.
  19. Okon V. Fundamentals of problem-based learning. M., 1968.
  20. Ponomarev Ya.A. Psychology of creation. M.; Voronezh, 1999.
  21. Development of creative activity of schoolchildren / Ed. A.M. Matyushkina. M., 1991.
  22. Selevko G.K. Modern educational technologies: Textbook. allowance. M., 1998.
  23. Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. M., 1969.
  24. Talyzina N.F. Managing the process of knowledge acquisition. M., 1975.
  25. Unt I.E. Individualization and differentiation of training. M., 1990.
  26. Heckhausen H. Motivation and activity: In 2 vols. M., 1986. Vol. 1, 2.

  Topics of term papers and essays

  1. The essence of traditional learning.
  2. The main contradictions of traditional teaching.
  3. Historical aspects of problem-based learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.

Distinctive features

· Based on the immediacy/mediation of interaction between teacher and student, this is contact learning, built on subject-object relationships, where the student is a passive object of the teaching influences of the teacher (subject), who acts within the strict framework of the curriculum.

· According to the method of organizing training, it is informational and informative, using methods of transmitting ready-made knowledge, training based on a model, reproductive presentation. Learning material occurs primarily through rote memorization.

· Based on the principle of consciousness/intuition, this is conscious learning. At the same time, awareness is aimed at the subject of development itself - knowledge, and not at the methods of obtaining it.

· Orientation of education towards the average student, which leads to difficulties in mastering the curriculum for both underachieving and gifted children.

Advantages and disadvantages of traditional learning.

Advantages	Flaws
1. Allows you to equip students in a concentrated form with knowledge of the fundamentals of science and examples of methods of activity in a short time.	1. Focused more on memory than on thinking (“memory school”)
2. Ensures the strength of knowledge acquisition and the rapid formation of practical skills.	2. Does little to promote the development of creativity, independence, and activity.
3. Direct control of the process of acquiring knowledge and skills prevents the emergence of knowledge gaps.	3. Individual characteristics of information perception are not sufficiently taken into account.
4. The collective nature of assimilation makes it possible to identify typical errors and guides them towards their elimination.	4. The subject-object style of relations between teachers and students prevails.

Principles of traditional education.

The traditional education system is determined by a set of substantive and procedural (organizational and methodological) principles.

· The principle of citizenship;

· The principle of science;

· The principle of educational training;

· The principle of fundamentality and applied orientation of training.

Organizational and methodological– reflect the patterns of social, psychological and pedagogical nature:

· The principle of continuity, consistency and systematic training;

· The principle of group unity and individual training;

· The principle of appropriate training for age and individual characteristics trainees;

· The principle of consciousness and creative activity;

· The principle of accessibility of training at a sufficient level of difficulty;

· The principle of visibility;

· The principle of productivity and reliability of training.

Problem-based learning.

Problem-based learning– a way of organizing students’ activities, based on acquiring new knowledge through solving theoretical and practical problems, problematic tasks in situations that create problematic situations (V. Okon, M. M. Makhmutov, A. M. Matyushkin, T. V. Kudryavtsev, I.Ya. Lerner and others).

Stages of problem-based learning

· Awareness of the problem situation.

· Formulation of the problem based on situation analysis.

· Problem solving, including generating, changing and testing hypotheses.

· Checking the solution.

Difficulty levels

Problem-based learning can be different levels difficulties for students depending on what and how many actions to solve the problem he carries out.

Advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning (B.B. Aismontas)

A problematic situation for a person arises if:

· There is a cognitive need and intellectual ability to solve the problem;

· There are difficulties, contradictions between old and new, known and unknown, given and sought, conditions and requirements.

Problem situations are differentiated according to criteria (A.M. Matyushkin):

1. The structure of actions that must be performed when solving a problem (for example, finding a method of action).

2. The level of development of these actions in the person solving the problem.

3. Difficulties of the problem situation depending on intellectual capabilities.

Types of problem situations (T.V. Kudryavtsev)

· A situation of inconsistency between students’ existing knowledge and new requirements.

· The situation of choosing from available knowledge the only one necessary to solve a specific problem problem.

· The situation of using existing knowledge in new conditions.

· A situation of contradiction between the possibilities of theoretical justification and practical use.

Problem-based learning is based on the analytical and synthetic activity of students, realized in reasoning and reflection. This is an exploratory type of learning.

Programmed training.

Programmed training – training according to a specially developed training program, which is an ordered sequence of tasks through which the activities of the teacher and students are regulated.

Linear: information frame – operational frame (explanation) – feedback frame (examples, tasks) – control frame.

Branched: step 10 – step 1 if error.

Principles of Programmed Learning

· Subsequence

· Availability

· Systematicity

· Independence

Advantages and disadvantages of programmed learning (B.B. Aismontas)

Forms of programmed training.

· Linear programming: information frame – operational frame (explanation) – feedback frame (examples, tasks) – control frame.

· Branched programming: step 10 – step 1 if there is an error.

· Mixed programming.