The 19th century for Russian literature is rightly called golden. He gave us many talented writers who opened the Russian language to the whole world. classical literature and becomes a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century is being replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is considered to be A.S. Pushkin, or rather more of him late works who marked the beginning of this era.
In the 40s, the “natural school” emerged, which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the “sitters” was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.
From the second half of the 19th century, realism received the name critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two movements are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, showing the impossibility of further moral development of society without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature; they reflected the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic serfdom, the truth of life made the works of that time popular.
Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century has significant differences from Western European. Many writers of the time identified in their works the motifs that prepared the shift to revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular novels and stories in Russia and abroad were those of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws governing its development. The characters in the works talk about the imperfections of society, conscience and justice.
One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works he raises important issues that time (“fathers and sons”, “on the eve”, etc.)
Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?” made a great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth.
The works of I. A. Goncharov show the morals of officials and landowners.
Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility of the human soul; the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader and force them to show sympathy for the “humiliated and insulted.”
Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works brings out clean water officials and embezzlers, bribe-takers and hypocrites who rob the people.
L.N. Tolstoy in his work showed all the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.
A.P. Chekhov's experience of fate Russian society found reflection in his works, giving birth to a writer whose talent makes one admire to this day.
Literature of the late 19th century had a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also entered the struggle for their ideals. The mood of society at that time is reflected in painting, introducing into people’s consciousness the idea of equality and benefit for the whole society.
- Mount Elbrus - message report (2nd, 4th, 8th grade)
Mount Elbrus is located in the Caucasus, in the past it was an active volcano, now it is listed as one of the largest extinct volcanoes. Last eruption volcano was recorded about 2000 years ago.
- Report on Berlin in Russian (report)
Berlin is one of the major cultural and economic centers of the European Union. It is surpassed in population only by London.
- Yenisei River - report message
There are many large deep rivers in Russia, but among them the Yenisei River stands out for its power and originality. The river dividing Siberia into Eastern and Western Siberia is closely connected with the culture and development of the people living on its banks.
- Who is an ichthyologist and what does he study? (this is a profession that studies...)
An ichthyologist is a scientist - a zoologist, a researcher of the world of fish. Ichthyologists study fish that live not only in natural conditions, but also commercial fish species. While studying each species, the scientist must find out the structure, vital functions
- Railway - report message
First railway in Russia was laid from St. Petersburg to Pavlovsk. Its majestic opening took place in November 1837.
Second half of the 19th century. — new stage in the development of world literature. International literary ties are significantly intensifying and strengthening, but at the same time the identity of national literatures is deepening.
A distinctive feature of the literary process is the development of realism. That deep study of man and society in their constant interrelation, which was begun by Stendhal, Balzac, and in Russian literature Pushkin and Gogol, was continued in the works of a whole galaxy of remarkable representatives of world literature: Turgenev, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Flaubert, Dickens, Maupassant and many other writers.
Realism strives for a truthful and comprehensive reproduction of the diverse phenomena of life, for a wide coverage of reality with all its inherent contradictions.
The artistic discoveries of realism were manifested not only in the authenticity of the depiction of everyday life, but also in the depiction of diverse human characters. A new concept of the world and man arises in art.
There is a certain dependence of a person on external circumstances; education, living conditions, social status. A soulless, prosaic society can have a destructive effect on a person, pushing him to abandon former ideals, or to reconcile with surrounding reality, or even lead to death (physical or moral). However, objectively depicting the impact of social conditions on the destinies, morals and spiritual world of people, realistic literature at the same time, it reflected the growing resistance of the individual. The best representatives of realistic literature have a positive hero moral fortitude, revealing the ability to withstand adverse circumstances. Russian writers, in particular, sought to show their hero (and heroine!) as an active person, aware of the fullness of responsibility not only for himself, but also for others, and even for all of humanity.
It is the hero’s life activity that often determines main conflict in the development of the plot, giving it features of dramatic tension.
The power of realism lies in the formulation of the most important socio-philosophical and psychological problems, which predetermines the universal significance of masterpieces of realistic art. That is why it is difficult to clearly outline the line separating realism from romanticism.
Despite constant literary polemics, in practice, romantic tendencies are clearly felt in the works of many outstanding realist writers. This is not about changing directions (a standard phrase from romanticism to realism is not always confirmed by facts), but about the peculiar coexistence of realism and romanticism, their interpenetration, which ultimately enriches art. This applies even to the work of such seemingly consistent realists as Stendhal, Balzac, Dickens, Turgenev, etc. Material from the site
It is often said that the main sign of realism is the desire for real-life verisimilitude. However, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of verisimilitude and artistic truth. These concepts are not identical. Realism is characterized by extraordinary richness artistic forms, styles, techniques. It is no coincidence that many writers, while remaining realists, widely use the most different ways artistic expression, turning to myth, symbolism, allegory, grotesque. You will see this when you read the works of such writers and playwrights as Stendhal, Balzac, Dostoevsky or Chekhov.
Didn't find what you were looking for? Use the search
On this page there is material on the following topics:
- paragraph 37 literature in Tue half of the 19th century
- development of world literature in the second half of the 19th century
- a brief description of literature of the second half of the 19th century
- realism of the second half of the 19th century
- development of drama in the second half of the 19th century
The 19th century gave birth large number Russian talented prose writers and poets. Their works quickly burst into the world and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. General characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century has become the subject of study in a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, the prerequisites for such a rapid cultural rise were events in political and social life.
Story
The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence historical events. If in XVIII century social life in Russia was relatively measured, the next century included many important vicissitudes that influenced not only further development society and politics, but also on the formation of new trends and trends in literature.
The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of words was A.S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.
Literary language
The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to his comprehensive development and excellent education. One day he set himself the goal of achieving all the peaks in education. And he achieved it by the age of thirty-seven. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and characteristics of the Russian soul. This literary type had no analogues in our literature before.
Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, a person with at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of “Eugene Onegin” who made a revolution in Russian literature.
Romanticism
This concept originates from Western medieval epic. But to 19th century it acquired new shades. Originating in Germany, romanticism penetrated into the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by a desire for mystical motives and folk legends. Poetry traces the desire to transform life for the better and the chanting folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetic creativity.
The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century are marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite often found in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.
As for prose, new forms of the story have appeared here, among which the fantastic genre occupies an important place. Vivid examples romantic prose - early works Nikolai Gogol.
Sentimentalism
With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is sensual and focuses on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century he gained a number of followers.
Satirical prose
It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting your creative journey with a description small homeland, this author later moved to all-Russian social topics. It is difficult today to imagine what Russian literature of the 19th century would have been like without this master of satire. The general characteristics of his prose in this genre come down not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirical writer “traversed” almost all layers of society.
A masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence
Realistic novel
In the second half of the century, realistic prose developed. Romantic ideals turned out to be insolvent. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a concept as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general description briefly represents a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the occurrence of certain phenomena. As for Dostoevsky's realistic prose, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author became a reaction to the mood that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting prototypes of people he knew in his works, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.
In the first decades, the country glorified Mikhail Kutuzov, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. The general characteristics of the end of the century can be summed up in a few words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the entire people, but its individual representatives that came to the fore. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person.”
Folk poem
In the years when the realistic novel took a dominant position, poetry faded into the background. The general characteristics of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century allow us to trace long haul from dreamy poetry to true romance. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be attributed to one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.
End of the century
At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov became one of the most read authors. Despite the fact that at the beginning creative path critics accused the writer of being cold towards current social issues; his works received undeniable public recognition. Continuing to develop the image " little man”, created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas that were developed in late XIX centuries, could not help but influence the lives of individual people.
In the late XIX literature century, revolutionary sentiments prevailed. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.
General characteristics of the 19th century deserve more close attention. Every major representative this period created his own art world, whose heroes dreamed of the impossible, fought social evil or experienced their own small tragedy. And the main task of their authors was to reflect the realities of a century rich in social and political events.
In the minds of people - readers and critics - of the 19th century, literature was given an important role in public life. Reading was not entertainment, not a form of leisure, but a way of understanding reality. For the writer, creativity became an act of spiritual and civil service to society; he believed in the effective force artistic word, into the opportunity with its help to elevate human soul, educate the mind and influence the socio-political situation.
From this faith was born the pathos of the struggle for this or that idea of transforming the country, this or that path of development of Russian life and literature. The 19th century became the heyday of Russian critical thought. Printed speeches best critics entered the golden fund of Russian culture and confirmed the high rank of criticism as special type literature.
Slavophiles and Westerners
In the 1840s, two social movements arose - Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky) and Westerners (V.G. Belinsky , A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, N.A. Westerners saw in the reforms of Peter I the beginning of the historical development of Russia, and in following European traditions- her the right way. They were skeptical about pre-Petrine Rus', considering the lack of rich ancient history advantage of Russia: the key to the rapid assimilation of the progressive ideas of Western Europe.
During these years, a radical movement emerged among Westerners, based on the teachings of the French utopian socialists - Saint-Simon and Fourier. At the apartment of M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky gathers a political circle, which includes young people passionate about socialist ideas. These meetings are also attended by writers, many of whom will later reconsider their attitude towards the Petrashevites - F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Maikov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin et al.
Utopian socialists saw the main social evil in inequality, in a distorted social order. The solution, in their opinion, was to re-educate the ruling class. The most radically minded part of this movement considered revolution as the only possible path to social transformation.
The Slavophile program for reforming Russia was based on the ideas of an independent path of development for a country with a history no less rich than the European one, independent of the West. “The Slavophiles considered the special, integral type of thinking, inherited from the Orthodox East and rooted in the deep layers of national life, as an indisputable advantage of Russian culture, requiring its development and improvement,” writes modern scientist Yu.V. Lebedev. The Slavophiles accepted the assimilation of the achievements of Western civilization only to the extent that this did not contradict the foundations of Russian culture. And if the West cares about human life directs to the improvement of external circumstances, then Orthodox Russia calls, first of all, for the moral improvement of man. European civilization, according to the Slavophiles, suffers from the spiritual disease of unbelief, individualism, deification of man and disappointment in spiritual values.
The divergence of views on the fate of Russia between Westerners and Slavophiles was also expressed in those different estimates, which representatives of both philosophical movements gave to the work of N.V. Gogol. Westerners saw in this writer the founder of the social-critical trend in Russian literature, while Slavophiles emphasized a special element of the author’s artistic worldview “ Dead souls"- epic fullness and high prophetic pathos. However, both of them recognized Gogol’s fruitful influence on the development of Russian literature as indisputable.
"Natural School"
In the 1840s, a galaxy of word artists grew up, creatively developing the achievements of their older contemporary. The group of writers who rallied around Belinsky was called “ natural school" The main object of depiction in their work was the “unprivileged” classes (janitors, artisans, coachmen, beggars, peasants, etc.). The writers sought not only to give a voice to the “humiliated and insulted”, to reflect their way of life and morals, but also to show the whole of vast Russia from a social point of view. At this time, the genre of “physiological essay” became popular, in which various social strata of Russian society were described with scientific rigor, thoroughness and factual accuracy (the best essays were written by N.A. Nekrasov, V.I. Dal, I.I. Panaev, D.V. Grigorovich, I.S. Turgenev, G.I. Uspensky, F.M.
Democratic revolutionaries
By the beginning of the 1860s, the confrontation between Westerners and Slavophiles had almost exhausted itself: by this time the ideologist of Westernism V.G. Belinsky and Slavophiles A.S. had passed away. Khomyakov and P.V. Kireyevsky. However, there was still no unity in the views of the Russian intelligentsia on the main issues of Russian life. In the context of a changing historical situation (the rapid development of cities, industry, improvement of the education system), new forces are coming into literature - commoners, people from different social strata(clergy, merchants, philistines, peasants, bureaucrats and impoverished nobility), who received an education and broke away from their former environment. In criticism and literature, revolutionary democratic ideas laid down by Belinsky are being developed. Representatives of this movement put pressing socio-political issues at the center of their creativity.
The main platform for the revolutionary-democratic wing of Russian criticism was the magazines Sovremennik, Otechestvennye zapiski and Russian word». Philosophical foundations critical approach to works of art were laid down in the master's thesis of N.G. Chernyshevsky “Aesthetic relations of art to reality.” Democratic revolutionaries viewed literature from the point of view of political and social significance, To literary text treated as the reproduction of life, and based on the analysis artistic image passed a harsh verdict on reality. This method of analysis is young talented critic N.A. Dobrolyubov called it “real criticism.”
"Aesthetic criticism" and "organic criticism"
Didacticism in perception artistic creativity was not accepted by representatives of “aesthetic criticism” (V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, A.V. Druzhinin), who proclaimed the intrinsic value of art, its independence from social problems and utilitarian tasks.
Overcome limitations pure art", solving exclusively aesthetic problems, and social determinism (subordination of creativity political ideas, public interest) sought "organic criticism". According to its principles developed by A.A. Grigoriev, and then N.N. Strakhov, true art born, not “made”, it is the fruit not only of the mind, but also of the artist’s soul, his “thought of the heart”, all aspects of human existence are reflected in it.
Soilists and nihilists
These ideas were close to the socio-philosophical movement, which was called “soilism.” Its representatives (A.A. Grigoriev, P.P. Strakhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.Ya. Danilevsky), developing the views of the Slavophiles, warned against the danger of being carried away by social ideas in isolation from reality, traditions, people, and history. Thinkers called for understanding Russian life, to comprehend the ideal inherent in popular consciousness to derive the principles of organic development of the country. On the pages of the magazines “Time” and then “Epoch”, the “soilists” criticized the self-confident rationalism of revolutionary-minded opponents, and determined the viability of philosophy and art by connection with folk life, Russian culture and history.
The soil scientists saw one of the main dangers in their contemporary reality in nihilism (from the Latin nihil - nothing). This phenomenon became widespread among young commoners in the 1860s and was expressed in the denial of established norms of behavior, art, religion, historical traditions, cultural values, recognized authorities and the dominant worldview. Moral categories were replaced by the concepts of “benefit” and “pleasure.”
A complex of spiritual, moral and social problems associated with nihilism is reflected in the novel by I.S. Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons" (1861), which caused a heated discussion in the press. Main character Turgenev's novel, Bazarov, who denies love, compassion, art and harmony, was enthusiastically greeted by D.I. Pisarev, a leading critic of the revolutionary-democratic magazine “Russian Word” and the main ideologist of nihilism. In the proclamation of the “godless freedom” of man, in the destructive passion of the new phenomenon, many thinkers saw a serious danger for Russia. In the literature of this time there develops special genre“anti-nihilistic novel” (I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.F. Pisemsky, N.S. Leskov). The conservative magazine “Russian Messenger”, published by M.N., took an irreconcilable position towards nihilistic revolutionaries. Katkov.
Development of the novel genre
Generally literary process second half of the 19th century century was marked by the development of the novel genre in all its diversity: the epic novel (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy), the political novel (“What is to be done?” by N.G. Chernyshevsky), social novel(“Gentlemen Golovlevs” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), psychological novel(“Crime and Punishment” and other works by F.M. Dostoevsky). The novel became central epic genre era, most appropriate the most important task, which time set before the artist: to explore the complex interactions of man and the surrounding life.
Poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century
After the Golden Age, having lost its dominant significance as the ruler of thoughts and feelings, poetry continued to develop powerfully and prepare the ground for new ups and downs. In the 1850s, poetry experienced a short but vibrant period of prosperity. The lyricist of “pure art” (A.A. Fet, Y.P. Polonsky, A.N. Maikov) gains recognition and fame.
Attention to folk life, history, and folklore, characteristic of literature in general, is also reflected in poetry. Main, key points national history received poetic interpretation in the works of A.N. Maykova, A.K. Tolstoy, L.A. Meya. Folk legends, epics, songs determine the stylistic searches of these authors. The other wing of Russian poetry of the 50s and 60s (the work of the populists M.L. Mikhailov, D.D. Minaev, V.S. Kurochkin) was called “civil” and was associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The indisputable authority for poets of this movement was N.A. Nekrasov.
In the last third of the 19th century, the work of peasant poets I.Z. became a noticeable phenomenon. Surikova, L.N. Trefoleva, S.D. Drozhzhin, who continued the traditions of Koltsov and Nekrasov.
The poetry of the 1880s was characterized, on the one hand, by the development and enrichment of romantic traditions, and on the other, by the enormous influence of Russian prose, the novels of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky with their deep and subtle psychological analysis human character.
Drama of the 2nd half of the 19th century
The second half of the 19th century became the era of the formation of an original national drama. Widespread use of folklore, attention to merchants and peasant life, vernacular, interest in Russian history, social and moral issues, expansion and complication of the traditional genre range, a complex combination of romanticism and realism - this is general character works of Russian playwrights of the second half of the 19th century - A.N. Ostrovsky, A.K. Tolstoy, L.V. Sukhovo-Kobylina.
The variety of artistic forms and styles of dramaturgy of the 2nd half of the 19th century largely predetermined the emergence at the end of the century of such innovative phenomena as the dramaturgy of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, Russian literature and culture flourished. In the public life of the country during this period there are important events: Crimean War, numerous peasant unrest, the abolition of serfdom, the emergence of capitalism. In general, social relations overcome a certain bar, a certain level, after which a return to the recent past seems impossible. First of all, this concerns attitudes towards a person, his problems, without distinction between categories and classes. The process of formation of the “new man”, his social and moral self-awareness begins. It is not surprising that such aspirations made realism the main direction in Russian literature by the mid-19th century, through which the principles of depicting reality were developed. His new stage was closely connected with an attempt to penetrate in detail into the depths of human feelings and relationships. The authors demonstrate a desire not only to convey their emotions through characters, but also to reveal the main reasons social evil. As a result, authors are increasingly turning to folk themes in their works; the image of a peasant, a peasant, is becoming one of the main ones in fiction. The traditions of realism laid down by Lermontov, Pushkin, Gogol are being consolidated, and their works in many ways become a standard for new authors. Critical reviews of works acquire considerable significance and weight. This was largely due to the activities of Chernyshevsky, including his dissertation “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality.” It’s impossible not to remember what exactly happened at that time significant event: V Russian Empire canceled serfdom, which of course is reflected in fiction. The desire for further reforms on this basis led to controversy and the emergence of two camps: liberals and democrats. The first proposed political and economic reforms of gradual change public relations, the latter insisted on immediate, radical changes, usually through revolutionary processes. Among others, Dobrolyubov, Herzen, Nekrasov, Chernyshevsky, and liberal views Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Druzhinin, Leskov adhered to. As a rule, the exchange of views and ideas was carried out through polemics on the pages of literary magazines. Also in the literature there are disputes between supporters of “pure art” and adherents of the “Gogolian” movement, and later - between “soilists” and “Westerners”. Under the influence of the ideology of commoners, ideas develop “ real criticism", the problem is raised positive hero. The creative searches of realist writers lead to new artistic discoveries, enrichment of the novel genre, and strengthening of psychologism. In the second half of the 19th century, a whole galaxy of talented Russian writers appeared: F.M. Dostoevsky (Poor people, Crime and Punishment), I.S. Turgenev (Fathers and Sons, Notes of a Hunter), I.A. Goncharov (Ordinary history, Oblomov, Precipice), A.N. Ostrovsky (Thunderstorm, Not everything is Maslenitsa for the cat, Lack of dowry, Our own people - we will be numbered), N.A. Nekrasov (Princess Volkonskaya, Who Lives Well in Rus'), M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin (The History of a City, Lord Golovlyov, Poshekhon Antiquity), L.N. Tolstoy (War and Peace), A.P. Chekhov (Novel of a Doctor, Novel of a Reporter, Ward No. 6, Death of an Official, Melancholy, Vanka, The Cherry Orchard).