Detailed solution to paragraph 10 in social studies for 10th grade students, authors L.N. Bogolyubov, Yu.I. Averyanov, A.V. Belyavsky 2015

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is spiritual culture? What components does it include?

Spiritual culture is the sphere of production and consumption of spiritual values. Spiritual culture includes norms and morals established in society, established ideas about beauty, religious views and scientific ideas, in other words, what was created as a result of human spiritual activity.

Spiritual culture includes religion, science, education, art, language, writing, etc. It consists of rules, standards, models and norms of behavior, laws, values, rituals, symbols, myths, knowledge, ideas, customs, language. Spiritual culture is the result of human activity, but the creation not of hands, but of the mind.

2. What values ​​does the spiritual culture of modern society include? Expand the content of the concept “social cultural institution”.

The main spiritual values ​​include: worldview-philosophical, or life-meaning, values ​​express the very foundations of human existence, correlating a person with the world; moral values ​​regulate relations between people from the position of opposition between the due and the prescribed. They are associated with the approval of fairly strict unwritten laws - principles, regulations, commandments, taboos, prohibitions and norms; aesthetic values ​​are associated with identifying, experiencing, and creating harmony; religious values, religious teachings include certain commanded (prohibitions) and sanctioned basic moral values ​​and requirements.

Social cultural institutions are institutions and organizations that create, perform, store, distribute works of art, as well as teach the population cultural values.

3. What features characterize different types of culture?

Culturologists distinguish different types of culture: folk, mass, elite.

Thus, it is characteristic of folk culture that its works, as a rule, do not have an author and are anonymous. Of course, every cultural creation had authors. But over time, authorship is forgotten, and the works of folk culture themselves live on, change, and transform. Folk culture includes myths, legends, tales, epics, songs, dances, and applied arts.

By the nature of their performance, elements of folk culture can be individual (statement of a legend), group (performing a dance or song), or mass (carnival processions). Folklore is another name for folk art, which is created by various segments of the population. Folklore is associated with the traditions of a given area and is democratic, since everyone participates in its creation. The best examples of folk culture capture the most important aspects of the life of society in a particular period of its development, and record values ​​and norms that are significant for society (or part of it). At the same time, the form of expression of works of folk culture is traditional, sometimes even canonical. Thus, folk songs or folk costumes, traditional in form, retain the accepted methods of their creation. Despite their apparent simplicity of form, many works of folk culture include a rather complex system of symbols that may not be fully understandable. Modern manifestations of folk culture include jokes and urban legends.

Elite, or high, culture is created by a privileged part of society or at its request by professional creators. It includes fine art, classical music and literature. High culture, for example, the painting of P. Picasso or the music of A. Schnittke, is difficult for an unprepared person to understand. As a rule, it is decades ahead of the level of perception of an averagely educated person. The circle of its consumers is a highly educated part of society: critics, literary scholars, regulars of museums and exhibitions, theatergoers, artists, writers, musicians. When the level of education of the population increases, the circle of consumers of high culture expands. Its varieties include secular art and salon music. The formula of elite culture is “art for art’s sake.”

Elite culture includes avant-garde movements in music, painting, cinema, and complex literature of a philosophical nature. Often the creators of such a culture are perceived as inhabitants of the “ivory tower”, who have fenced themselves off with their art from the real world. everyday life. As a rule, elite culture is non-commercial, although sometimes it can be financially successful and move into the category of mass culture.

Mass or public culture does not express the refined tastes of the aristocracy or the spiritual quest of the people. The time of its appearance is the middle of the 20th century, when new technology and media (print, recording, radio, television, tape recorder, video) penetrated into most countries of the world and became available to representatives of all social strata. Mass culture can be international and national. Popular music is a prime example of mass culture. It is understandable and accessible to all ages, all segments of the population, regardless of level of education.

4. What is a subculture? Give a specific example.

Subculture is a system of norms and values ​​that distinguish a separate social group from the majority of society; a subsystem of the dominant culture that characterizes the lifestyle and values ​​of certain social groups. The subcultures of our time include the youth subculture (emo, goths), the subculture of older people, the subculture of national minorities, the professional subculture, and the criminal subculture.

5. How do different cultures interact in modern society?

In modern society, on the one hand, one can see the mutual penetration of different cultures, which promotes interethnic understanding and cooperation, on the other hand, the development of national cultures is accompanied by interethnic conflicts. The latter circumstance requires a balanced, tolerant attitude towards the culture of other communities.

TASKS

1. Prove or disprove the proposition that is already in primitive society there was a rich spiritual culture.

In primitive society there really was a spiritual culture, but not rich, but more primitive, because in primitive society there were traditions, religion, laws, etc., which were recorded in material sources found during archaeological excavations.

2. Describe a typical picture of the world (optional) of a resident of ancient Athens, a medieval person, based on the ideological values ​​inherent in the society of the corresponding era.

The picture of the world is a person’s sense of self, based on ideas about space and time. The picture of the world is, of course, reflected in the monuments of material culture, but due to the complexity and ambiguity of their decoding, as well as their very incomplete (fragmentary) reflection of the period under study, they are not able to recreate the picture of the world of ancient man on a full scale. Based on this, the picture of the world of a resident of ancient Athens was focused on the worship of the gods. The ancient Athenians had a whole pantheon of gods, each of which was “responsible” for a certain area, category of natural phenomena or human activity. Among them, one with outstanding abilities and qualities gradually stands out.

The Greek temple was considered the dwelling of a god; as a rule, it contained a statue of the god in whose honor it was erected. The ensemble of the Athens Acropolis occupies a special place in the history of architecture. The largest building here is the Temple of Athena the Virgin, the Parthenon.

The picture of the world of medieval man was slightly different. The very category of earthly life was evaluative in nature and opposed to heavenly life. In this regard, land as a geographical concept was simultaneously perceived as a place of earthly life and was part of the “earth-sky” opposition, and therefore had a religious and moral character. These same ideas were transferred to geographical concepts in general: some lands were perceived as righteous, others as sinful, and movement in geographical space becomes movement along a vertical scale of religious and moral values, in which the upper level is in heaven and the lower in hell (for example, this feature determined the composition " Divine Comedy"Dante).

The opposition “one's own - someone else's” played an important role and was perceived as a variant of the opposition “righteous - sinful”, “good - bad”.

The earth seemed flat in the form of a huge disk supporting the vault of heaven and surrounded by the ocean, its edge, which was lost in the darkness, was inhabited by wonderful tribes - one-legged people, wolf people. In this flat, round world, surrounded by all sorts of horrors, there is a center - Jerusalem.

The objective world was divided into three areas. In one of them Islam reigned - the kingdom of evil. Another region is Byzantium, where semi-evil dominated, this Christian world aroused distrust and was alien. The third area is the West itself, the Latin, Christian world, which dreamed of a Golden Age and an empire.

The universe was a system of concentric spheres. So, for example, according to the “Lamp” of Honorius Augustodunsky, the sky was divided into three parts: the bodily sky that we see; the spiritual heaven, where spiritual angels live, and the intellectual heaven, where the blessed contemplate the face of the Holy Trinity.

Medieval man perceived himself as a “small world” - a microcosm that was correlated with the macrocosm, feeling his inner kinship with it.

Medieval times were, first of all, religious and ecclesiastical times. Religious, because the year was presented as a liturgical year, which was perceived as a sequence of events from the history of Christ. It unfolded from Christmas to Trinity and was filled with events from the lives of the saints. It was also ecclesiastical because only the clergy could measure it by ringing bells, and were its “master”.

The picture of the world of medieval man was extremely saturated with various kinds of symbols. Each real object was considered as an image of something corresponding to it in a higher sphere and, accordingly, became its symbol. Language also served to express reality hidden from the eyes. Symbolism was universal; to think meant to eternally discover hidden meanings that promised salvation. Everything was symbolic.

3. Culturologists formulate several patterns of cultural development. Among them is the law of continuity in the development of culture. How would you define the essence of this pattern? Give examples of this pattern.

The law of continuity in the development of culture is the most important in the content of the emerging science of cultural studies. Where there is no continuity in the development of culture, there is no culture itself, because in this case each new generation would have to begin to invent stone tools and language; wheel and dwelling; art and science, etc.

Continuity is the basis for the development of culture, and therefore also constitutes its most important objective law.

Each new stage in the development of mankind necessarily inherits the cultural achievements of previous eras, including them in the new system public relations.

The law of cultural continuity can be considered using such an example as the celebration of the New Year or Christmas. For many years, people have paid great attention to these holidays.

4. Using the “Functions of Culture” diagram, prepare a detailed answer revealing the functions of spiritual culture.

Functions of culture

Cognitive: A holistic idea of ​​the people, country, era

Evaluation: Selection of values, enrichment of traditions

Regulatory (normative): A system of norms and requirements of society for all its members in all areas of life and activity

Informative: Sharing knowledge, values ​​and experiences of previous generations

Communicative: The ability to preserve, transmit and replicate cultural values

Socialization: The individual’s assimilation of a system of knowledge, norms, values, accustoming to social roles, normative behavior, desire for self-improvement

Among the social institutions that exist to satisfy such vital needs of society as obtaining new knowledge and transferring it to next generations, resolving spiritual issues, a subgroup of cultural institutions can be distinguished.

For example, when they say that the press, radio and television represent the “fourth estate,” in essence, they are understood not only as a component political sphere, but also as a cultural institution, since with their help certain moral and aesthetic norms associated with political activity. Communication institutions are the organs through which society, through social structures, produces and disseminates information expressed in symbols. They are the main source of knowledge about accumulated experience.

A subtype of communication institutions are libraries, museums, schools and universities, television, newspapers, printing, radio, cinema. The totality of all technical devices, including buildings and funds of libraries, museums and schools, constitutes the infrastructure of the institutional system of culture.

Institutions simultaneously act as instruments of social control, since, due to their normative nature, they force people to obey accepted norms and observe appropriate discipline. Therefore, an institution is understood as a set of norms and patterns of behavior. No less important is the function of socialization of people, carried out by almost all social institutions (the assimilation of cultural norms and the development of social roles).

Spiritual culture of society

“There are only two rulers in the world - the sword and the spirit. And in the end the spirit always triumphs over the sword.”

Napoleon Bonaparte

The cultural activity of society in all its manifestations and forms of social associations from micro to macrosocial communities is divided into two main spheres: 1.material (related to the reproduction of human physical existence) and spiritual (related to the reproduction of social consciousness). Accordingly, these two forms of cultural activity distinguish between spiritual and material culture.

The structure of the spiritual culture of society

Spiritual culture is a form of human and social activity that embraces the wealth of human feelings and achievements of the mind, unites both the assimilation of accumulated spiritual values ​​and the creative creation of new ones.

To characterize the spiritual culture of a society, it is necessary to analyze its structure. A distinction is made between the substrate structure and the species structure of spiritual culture.

Let us consider the substrate structure of the spiritual culture of society. It includes as main elements values, norms and cultural languages.

Values belong to one of the main elements of culture. At the level of ordinary consciousness, the concept of value is associated with evaluating the products of human activity from the standpoint of good and evil, justice and injustice, true and false knowledge, beauty and ugliness. Value is understood as a generally accepted norm, formed in a certain culture, which serves as a standard and ideal, is not questioned and has priority in people’s lives. American sociologist T. Parsons noted that value is an idea of ​​what is desirable, influencing the choice of a behavioral alternative.

The value system gives order and predictability to society. Cultural life without values ​​is impossible; it is through the system of values ​​accumulated in culture that the regulation of human activity is carried out. Cultural objects, devoid of a value component, turn simply into physical objects. It is value, according to P. Sorokin, that serves as the foundation of any culture.

Values ​​can be divided into

- subject having their own bearer (natural resources, scientific truths, cultural heritage past, works of art, objects of religious worship, etc.);

- values ​​consciousness(social attitudes, ideas about morality, the beautiful and the ugly, the meaning of life, justice, etc.)

Depending on the dominance of certain values, P. Sorokin identifies the following types of sociocultural supersystems: ideational, sensual, idealistic. Different cultures have their own specific values. Thus, the fundamental values, in accordance with the tradition of Orthodoxy, include social justice, empathy and compassion for the offended, readiness for self-sacrifice in the name of a high goal, and patriotism. Important values ​​of Western culture are freedom and individual rights, personal success, work activity and education.

Values ​​are expressed in cultural artifacts: mythology, writing, religious dogmas, objects of art, etc. Sometimes the values ​​of a certain culture are contained in objects that in themselves do not have any value. Thus, in many traditional cultures, various natural objects (“churingi” stones, pieces of wood), which supposedly contain the embryos of future lives, are of value.

However, there are universal universal cultural values, reflected in all cultures, shared by all people, regardless of their nationality, religion, or social status. They are formed as a result of understanding the centuries-old experience of social development and unite people on the basis of the generally valid nature of the interests and needs they express. The values ​​of spiritual culture are to a greater extent more universal in their essence than material values.

Existing in the space-time continuum, they, unlike material ones, are not tied to the specifics of everyday life and cannot be expressed in terms of money. The fundamental basis of any culture is positive values, expressed by such concepts as love, faith, knowledge, science, family, marriage, veneration of ancestors, etc. Thus, there is no culture in which murder, betrayal, lying, theft, and sexual violence are positively assessed.

Values ​​are a fundamental internal regulator at the personal level. A person who has not learned to consider objects of knowledge from an axiological position cannot be represented as a person. Moreover, the value preferences of an individual do not quite adequately reflect the hierarchy of cultural values ​​of a society or social group.

Thus, during the Soviet period, the sociocultural values ​​of society were embodied in such concepts and slogans as “the art of socialist realism”, “the moral code of the builder of communism”, etc. The values ​​of many individual people were concentrated in concepts reflecting the more private, intimate side of life (love, family, children, creativity, etc.)

With changes in social living conditions, social relations, people's consciousness, and with the development of culture, the system of values ​​changes. The destruction of the previous value system and the formation of a new one characterizes the crisis period of culture. To designate a value-cultural vacuum, the French sociologist E. Durkheim introduced the concept of “anomie”. Thus, with the destruction of the Greek polis, the value orientations of society and individuals shift towards greater individualism. Nowadays, globalization has an important influence on the formation of the values ​​of a particular culture. In this situation, a necessary condition for developing paths and options is to identify universal values ​​and recognize their nature.

The most important elements of spiritual culture are norms. Norms are rules governing people's behavior and their interaction in the process of communication. Cultural norms serve as patterns of behavior caused by the peculiarities of life of a particular society. The following types of cultural norms can be distinguished: - habits; - manners;

-customs(a traditionally established order of behavior associated with a certain way of satisfying the most important needs of life); - traditions(habits and customs passed on from one generation to another); - ritual as a set of actions established by custom, of a mass nature, expressing religious ideas or household traditions; -ceremony(a sequence of actions that have a symbolic meaning and are dedicated to the celebration of generally significant events or dates; - ritual(a highly stylized and carefully planned set of gestures and words that have symbolic meaning); - morals(mass patterns of action reflecting moral values ​​that are especially protected and highly respected by society); - taboo(an absolute prohibition imposed on any action, word, object).

Laws are a type of norm.

So, cultural norms are instructions, requirements, expectations, wishes of behavior approved in a given society.

The set of various norms forms a normative system of culture in which all elements must be coordinated.

The third structural component of the spiritual culture of society is cultural languages- a system of signs and symbols in which a certain cultural content is objectified and expressed. Through language, spiritual culture is preserved and transmitted, as well as cultural communication. Cultural phenomena do not exist outside the language of culture. Language is a way of existence of phenomena of spiritual culture.

Cultural languages ​​form a complex multi-level sign system. Sign - it is a material object, phenomenon, event that acts as an objective substitute for another event, phenomenon, and is used for the acquisition, storage, processing and transmission of cultural information. A sign is the main form of fixation and transmission of cultural information. Thanks to signs, communication between people and joint goal setting become possible.

According to the nature of the relationship of the signifier to the signified, Ch.S. Peirce identified three main types of signs: 1.iconic (figurative) signs in which the signifier and the signified have some features of similarity to each other; 2. index signs , in which the signifier and the signified are in one way or another related to each other by contiguity; most often this connection is cause-and-effect and/or indicative in nature - for example, the trace indicates the one who left it, and the smoke indicates the fire from which it comes; 3.signs-symbols or symbolic signs in which the signifier and the signified are connected only by a conventional agreement accepted in a given society and/or a given culture.

A special kind of sign is symbol. What distinguishes a symbol from a simple sign is that it does not imply a direct indication of the object of signification. Symbol in culture - a universal category, revealed through a comparison of the subject image and deep meaning. Turning into a symbol, the image becomes “transparent”; the meaning seems to shine through it. The original meaning of this word was an identity card, which served as a simbolon (Greek) - half a shard, which was a guest sign. Its signified is an abstract meaning or a whole spectrum of meanings conventionally associated with a particular object. For example, a fish in Christianity symbolizes Jesus Christ, a dove – the Holy Spirit, a rose – God the Father. The symbol is deeper and more complex in its internal structure than a simple sign. It assumes endless interpretation and polysemy, inexhaustibility of meaning. The concept of symbolic forms of culture was proposed by the German philosopher and cultural scientist E. Cassirer. According to Cassirer, a symbol is the key to human nature. A person interacts with reality not “directly”, but through a symbolic network, which is a product of the symbolic function human spirit. As humanity develops, the symbolic network of culture becomes “thinner, but stronger.” Symbolic forms include language, mythology, philosophy, religion, and science. The ability of people to produce symbols is most clearly manifested in art, where the image dominates A system of signs that embodies a particular culture forms the language of that culture. To date, the following generally accepted classification of languages ​​has emerged: - natural languages, as the main and historically primary means of knowledge and communication (Russian, French, Estonian, Czech, etc.); - artificial languages - these are languages ​​of science where meaning is fixed and there are strict boundaries of use; - secondary languages(secondary modeling systems) are communication structures built on top of the natural language level (myth, religion, art).

In the language of culture there are also cultural code. A code is a set of rules or restrictions that ensure the functioning of speech activity in a natural language or any sign system. The code is conventional, i.e. shared and accepted by all members of a particular communication community. Codes create a kind of framework through which signs receive meaning.

Culture code – a certain specific set of signs (symbols), meanings (and their combinations), as well as rules for their interpretation and translation, characterizing the culture of a certain specific historical subject (type of social community). To characterize the cultural code of M.K. Petrov proposed the theory of sociocode. Sociocode is a way of accumulating, storing and transmitting culturally significant information. Petrov identifies three types of sociocode in the history of human culture: 1. personal name code– knowledge is fragmented and recorded in individual names. Behind each name there is a certain social role. Through naming in the process of initiation, knowledge about a person’s function in the community is transmitted. This type of sociocode is characteristic of primitive cultures; 2. professional name code– knowledge is fragmented by profession, the main transmitter of professional knowledge is the family. This code emerges in traditional societies in which professional groups first appear; 3. universal conceptual code– knowledge takes on a universal character, is abstracted from specific carriers and embodied in texts. Such a code is formed in modern times, thanks to the development of theoretical conceptual thinking. Education is becoming the main sociocultural institution for the transmission of knowledge.

According to Canadian sociologist G.M. McLuhan, differences in cultural codes are based on differences in methods and means of communication. On this basis, he distinguishes three types of culture: 1. preliterate– oral methods of communication dominate, so the main organ is the ear (archaic cultures); 2. writing– visual methods of transmitting information (writing) dominate, therefore the main organ is the eye (from the first written civilizations to the formation of the information society of time); 3. screen– electronic means of communication dominate, collapsing space and time, turning the world into a “global village.”

American cultural anthropologist M. Mead proposed dividing cultures according to the nature of intergenerational relations. She identified: 1. post-figurative type of cultures in which children learn from adults; 2. cofigurative - where children and adults learn from equals, peers: 3. prefigurative - where adults can learn from their children. Through analysis specific crops M. Mead showed that in addition to direct linear transmission of knowledge, simultaneous and reverse transmission is possible in the history of culture.

Considering the substrate structure of spiritual culture, many scientists wonder whether so-called cultural universals actually exist.

Each specific community (civilization, state, nationality) creates its own culture over many centuries, which accompanies the individual throughout his life and is passed on from generation to generation. As a result, many cultures arise. Scientists are faced with the problem of determining whether there is something common in human culture, or, in scientific terms, are there cultural universals?

Obviously, the existence of universals should not raise doubts, since biologically all people are generally identical and in this sense some cultures will be identical. For example, looking at the cave paintings of primitive people and comparing them with the drawings of small children (up to about the age of five), we see the general features of the drawn person: a head, a torso, two legs, two arms. You can also find something in common in the proportions of ancient Greek sculptures and modern ones: reality, the proportions of a healthy human body. Thus, recognizing the existence of cultural universals, we must derive a definition of cultural universals.

Cultural universals – such norms, values, rules, traditions and properties that are inherent in all cultures, regardless of geographical location, historical time and social structure of society.

Cultural universals arise because all people, no matter where they live in the world, are physically built the same, have the same biological needs and face common problems that the environment poses to humanity. People are born and die, so all nations have customs associated with birth and death. Living together leads to division of labor, dancing, games, greetings, etc.

American sociologist and ethnographer George Murdoch identified more than 70 cultural universals - elements common to all cultures. These include age gradation, sports, body jewelry, calendar, cleanliness, community organization, cooking, cooperation of labor, cosmology, courtship, dancing, decorative arts, fortune telling, dream interpretation, division of labor, education, etc.

Spiritual culture is a certain system of ideological ideas, knowledge, views that are inherent in a specific ethnic group, cultural and historical society of people (people, nation) or even humanity as a whole. Man as an individual does not limit himself only to external sensory experience and does not assign primary priority to it. He still recognizes spiritual experience as guiding and fundamental, thanks to it, he loves, believes, lives and evaluates things and everything that happens. Spiritual culture arose and develops thanks to these inner experiences and experiences of a person, which determines purpose and meaning.

History of the term

This concept was first introduced by the historian and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt. In his writings, he described the idea that world history is the result of the influence of a spiritual force that lies beyond the limits of human consciousness and cognition. This power manifests itself through the personal efforts and creative abilities of individual individuals. It was the fruits of their activity that von Humboldt called the term spiritual culture.

Patriotism and the concept of culture

This concept is closely related to patriotism. Every nation is obliged to accept and recognize its historical and natural reality, to work through it in a creative national act. If some people do not accept this natural duty, then ultimately they will face spiritual degradation and decay. As a consequence, the disappearance of such an important aspect as spiritual culture and departure from the historical arena. Every nation strives to spiritualize itself. For each of them, the process of comprehending and developing such a path as spiritual culture is individual and unique. It is precisely such differences and features that reveal the characteristic features of each nation, and it is they that make it possible to talk about national culture and patriotism.

Elements of spiritual culture

It is impossible to talk about such a complex concept without listing the main constituent elements. The basis of any culture is, rather, not the preservation or development of traditions, but activity. In the context of talking about such a concept as spiritual culture, we can mention such types of activities as intellectual, aesthetic, creative, religious, legal, moral, cognitive, artistic.

Varieties of crops

It is impossible not to mention the classification of rather abstract and individual concepts. They can be distinguished depending on the media. There are national (synthesis of different class cultures) and world (as a synthesis of national) cultures. We can also talk about so-called subcultures, distinguished in accordance with more specific carriers. They mainly refer to class, urban, rural, youth, family, individual, and folk cultures. Another important concept that reveals the term spiritual culture is the division into the material and artistic sides of life. However, they are so strongly intertwined in modern society under the current conditions of life that it is virtually impossible to determine their clear boundaries and boundaries.

Spiritual culture: definition, structure, varieties.
Plan.

Introduction.

Spiritual culture – definition.

Spiritual culture - structure.

Varieties of spiritual culture.


Myth.

Art.

Philosophy.

Ideology.

Moral.


Conclusion.

1. INTRODUCTION
The world community is paying more and more attention to the state of culture. It is understood, first of all, as the content and process of people’s life, the result of their active and purposeful, although not always expedient and successful, productive social activity. Culture is one of the leading signs of planetary civilization; it distinguishes the life of people from the life of other living beings on earth and possible extraterrestrial civilizations.

Culture– (Latin) cultivation, education, education, development.

This is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, ideas in the products of material and spiritual labor in a system of social norms and institutions, in a system of spiritual values, in the aggregate, the relationship of people to nature among themselves and to themselves.

In the broad sense of the word culture – a set of manifestations of life, achievements of creativity of a people or groups of peoples.

In the narrow sense of the word culture – ennoblement of a person’s physical, mental inclinations and abilities.

Culture– processing, design, spiritualization, ennobling people of others and themselves. This is a design that has a value meaning. Culture begins where the content takes its perfect form.

Culture is an integral system object with a complex structure. At the same time, the very existence of culture acts as a single process that can be divided into two spheres: material and spiritual.

Material culture divided into:
- production and technological culture, which represents the material results of material production and methods of technological activity of a social person;
- reproduction of the human race, which includes the entire sphere of intimate relationships between a man and a woman.
It should be noted that material culture is understood not so much as the creation of the objective world of people, but rather the activity of creating “conditions” human existence" The essence of material culture is the embodiment of various human needs, allowing people to adapt to biological and social conditions of life.

2. Spiritual culture - definition.
Spiritual culture- multi-layered education, including cognitive, moral, artistic, legal and other cultures; it is a set of intangible elements: norms, rules, laws, spiritual values, ceremonies, rituals, symbols, myths, language, knowledge, customs. Any object of intangible culture needs a material intermediary, for example, a book.

Spiritual culture- the sphere of human activity, covering various aspects of the spiritual life of man and society. Spiritual culture includes forms of social consciousness and their embodiment in literary, architectural and other monuments of human activity. Acting as a qualitative indicator of the spiritual life of society, spiritual culture in its structure is identical to the structure of the spiritual sphere public life, which as a system represents the unity of such components as spiritual activity, spiritual needs, spiritual consumption, social institutions, spiritual relationships and communication.

Spiritual production- the activities of society in the production, preservation, exchange, distribution and consumption of ideas, ideas, ideals, scientific knowledge and other spiritual values. In the sphere of distribution and development of spiritual values, spiritual production includes education, moral and aesthetic education and other forms of familiarization with spiritual culture. Spiritual development is a process of enriching the spiritual development of a person and society, aimed at realizing the ideals of spiritual development of culture: humanism, freedom, individuality, creativity, etc. The spiritual development of society is embodied in the development of forms of social consciousness: morality, religion, philosophy, science, art, political and legal understanding of social progress.

The concept of spiritual culture:
- contains all areas of spiritual production (art, philosophy, science, etc.),
- shows the socio-political processes occurring in society (we are talking about power structures of management, legal and moral norms, leadership styles, etc.).
The ancient Greeks formed the classic triad of the spiritual culture of humanity: truth - goodness - beauty. Accordingly, three most important value absolutes of human spirituality were identified:
- theoreticism, with an orientation towards truth and the creation of a special essential being, opposite to the ordinary phenomena of life;
- thereby subordinating all other human aspirations to the moral content of life;
- aestheticism, achieving the maximum fullness of life based on emotional and sensory experience.
The above-mentioned aspects of spiritual culture have found their embodiment in various spheres of human activity: in science, philosophy, politics, art, law, etc. They largely determine the level of intellectual, moral, political, aesthetic, and legal development of society today. Spiritual culture involves activities aimed at the spiritual development of man and society, and also represents the results of these activities.
Thus, all human activity becomes the content of culture. Human society stood out from nature thanks to such a specific form of interaction with the surrounding world as human activity.
3. Spiritual culture – structure.
The spiritual culture of society includes:

Reproduction of individual and social consciousness;

Folk artistic culture;

Art as a professional form of artistic creativity;

Aesthetic culture;

The culture of scientific life;

Culture of education;

Educational culture;

Culture of freedom of conscience;

Culture of moral and spiritual life;

Information culture.
4. Varieties of spiritual culture.
A person can realize his creativity in different ways, and the fullness of his creative self-expression is achieved through the creation and use of various cultural forms. Each of these forms has its own “specialized” semantic and symbolic system. I will further try to briefly characterize only truly universal forms of spiritual culture, each of which expresses the essence of human existence in its own way.

The development of culture is accompanied by the emergence and formation of relatively independent value systems. At first they are included in the context of culture, but then development leads to ever deeper specialization and, finally, to their relative independence. This happened with mythology, religion, art, science

In modern culture we can already talk about their relative independence and the interaction of culture with these institutions.

4.1. Myth

Myth is not only the historically first form of culture, but also changes in the mental life of man, which persist even when myth loses its absolute dominance. The universal essence of myth is that it represents the unconscious semantic twinning of a person with the forces of immediate existence, be it the existence of nature or society. If myth acts as the only form of culture, then this twinning leads to the fact that a person does not distinguish meaning from a natural property, but a semantic (associative) relationship from a cause-and-effect one. Everything is animated, and nature appears as a world of formidable, but related to man, mythological creatures - demons and gods

Myth - the most ancient value system. It is believed that in general, culture moves from myth to logos, that is, from fiction and convention to knowledge, to law. In this regard, in modern culture, myth plays an archaic role, and its values ​​and ideals have a vestigial meaning. The development of science and civilization often devalues ​​myth and shows the inadequacy of the regulatory functions and values ​​of myth, the essence of modern sociocultural reality. However, this does not mean that the myth has exhausted itself. Myth in modern culture creates means and methods of symbolic thinking; it is capable of interpreting the values ​​of modern culture through the idea of ​​the “heroic”, which, say, is inaccessible to science. In the values ​​of myth, the sensual and rational are given syncretely, together, which is little accessible to other means of culture of the 20th century. Fantasy and fiction make it easy to overcome the incompatibility of meanings and content, because in myth everything is conditional and symbolic

Under these conditions, the choice and orientation of the individual becomes liberated and, therefore, using convention, it can achieve high flexibility, which, for example, is almost inaccessible to religion. Myth, humanizing and personifying the phenomena of the surrounding world, reduces them to human ideas. On this basis, a person’s concrete sensory orientation becomes possible, and this is one of the simplest ways to organize his activities. In early and primitive cultures, this method played a leading role, for example, in paganism. But in developed cultures, such phenomena are more likely to have the nature of a relapse or are a mechanism for the implementation of one or another archetype, especially in mass culture or mass behavior. Mythology is often used in the 20th century as an amplifier of values, usually through their exaggeration and fetishization. Myth allows us to sharpen one or another aspect of value, to exaggerate it, and, therefore, to emphasize and even stick it out.

4.2. Religion

Religion , like myth, expresses a person’s need to feel his involvement in the foundations of existence. However, now man no longer seeks his foundations in the immediate life of nature. The gods of developed religions are in the realm of the otherworldly (transcendent). Unlike myth, here it is not nature that is deified, but the supernatural powers of man, and above all, the spirit with its freedom and creativity. By placing the divine on the other side of nature and understanding it as a supernatural absolute, developed religion freed man from mythological unity with nature and internal dependence on elemental forces and passions

Religion began to dominate culture following myth. The values ​​of secular culture and the values ​​of religion are often not harmonious and contradict each other. For example, in understanding the meaning of life, in understanding the world, etc. The main thing in almost every religion is faith in God or faith in the supernatural, in a miracle that is incomprehensible by reason, in a rational way. It is in this vein that all the values ​​of religion are formed. Culture, as a rule, modifies the formation of religion, but once established, religion begins to change culture, so further development culture is significantly influenced by religion. E. Durkheim emphasized that religion operates mainly with collective ideas and therefore unity and connection are its main regulators. The values ​​of religion are accepted by a community of co-religionists, therefore religion acts primarily through motives of consolidation, through a uniform assessment surrounding reality, life goals, human essence. Religion establishes a gradation of values, gives them holiness and unconditionality, which then leads to the fact that religion orders values ​​“vertically” - from earthly and ordinary to divine and heavenly. The requirement for constant moral perfection of a person in line with the values ​​​​proposed by religion creates a tension of meanings and meanings, falling into which a person regulates his choice within the boundaries of sin and justice. This gives rise to a tendency towards the conservation of values ​​and cultural traditions, which can lead to social stabilization, but at the expense of restraining secular values

Secular values ​​are more conventional; they are more easily subject to transformation and interpretation in the spirit of the times. The general trend is manifested here in the fact that in the development of culture the processes of secularization, that is, the liberation of culture from the influence of religion, are gradually intensifying.

4.3. Art

In parallel with myth and religion, art existed and operated in the history of culture. Art is an expression of a person’s need for figurative and symbolic expression and experience of significant moments in his life. Art creates a “second reality” for a person - a world of life experiences expressed by special figurative and symbolic means. Connection to this world, self-expression and self-knowledge in it constitute one of the most important needs of the human soul.

Art produces its values ​​through artistic activity and the artistic exploration of reality. The task of art comes down to the knowledge of the aesthetic, to the artistic interpretation by the author of the phenomena of the surrounding world. In artistic thinking, cognitive and evaluative activities are not separated and are used in unity. Such thinking works with the help of a system of figurative means and creates a derivative (secondary) reality - aesthetic assessments. Art enriches culture with spiritual values ​​through artistic production, through the creation of subjective ideas about the world, through a system of images symbolizing the meanings and ideals of a certain time, a certain era.

Art reflects the world and reproduces it. Reflection itself can have three dimensions: past, present and future. Accordingly, there may be differences in the types of values ​​that art creates. These are retro values, which are oriented to the past, these are realistic values, which are “exactly” oriented to the present, and, finally, avant-garde values, oriented to the future. Hence the peculiarities of their regulatory role. However, what all these values ​​have in common is that they are always addressed to the human “I”. This contains both positive and negative aspects, that is, artistic values, refracted in the consciousness and subconscious of the human “I”, can give rise to both rational and irrational motives, and incentives for choice in human behavior

The role of art in the development of culture is contradictory. It is constructive and destructive, it can educate in the spirit of lofty ideals and vice versa. In general, art, thanks to subjectification, is capable of maintaining an openness of the value system, an openness of search and choice of orientation in culture, which ultimately fosters a person’s spiritual independence and freedom of spirit. For culture, this is an important potential and factor in its development.

4.4. Philosophy

When discussing the spiritual components of culture, one cannot fail to mention philosophy. Philosophy strives to express wisdom in the forms of thought (hence its name, which literally translates as “love of wisdom”). Philosophy arose as a spiritual overcoming of myth, where wisdom was expressed in forms that did not allow its critical understanding and rational proof. As thinking, philosophy strives for a rational explanation of all existence. But being at the same time an expression of wisdom, philosophy turns to the ultimate semantic foundations, sees things and the whole world in their human (value-semantic) dimension. Thus, philosophy acts as a theoretical worldview and expresses human values, human attitude towards the world. Since the world, taken in the semantic dimension, is the world of culture, philosophy acts as comprehension, or, in Hegel’s words, the theoretical soul of culture. The diversity of cultures and the possibility of different semantic positions within each culture lead to a variety of philosophical teachings that argue with each other.

4.5. Science

Science has as its goal a rational reconstruction of the world based on the comprehension of its essential laws. It is inextricably linked with philosophy, which acts as a universal methodology of scientific knowledge, and also allows us to comprehend the place and role of science in culture and human life

Science is one of the new institutions in the structure of culture. However, its importance is growing rapidly, and modern culture is fostering profound changes under the influence of science. Spiritual evolution through myth, religion and philosophy led humanity to science, where the reliability and truth of the acquired knowledge is verified by specially developed means and methods. Science, therefore, exists as a special way of producing objective knowledge

Objectivity does not include an evaluative attitude towards the object of knowledge, that is, science deprives the object of any value significance for the observer. Science, giving knowledge to man, equips him and gives him strength. "Knowledge is power!" - stated F. Bacon

But for what purposes and with what intent is this power used? Culture must answer this question

The humanistic value and cultural role of science are ambiguous. If the value of science is measured by practical consequences, then, on the one hand, it gave the computer, and on the other, nuclear weapons. The highest value for science is truth, while the highest value for culture is man. Science, being a powerful means of rationalizing human labor, can successfully “roboticize” a person. By suppressing other forms of truth, science limits the possibilities of spiritual development. In an effort to control the content of education, science indirectly controls the system of human guidelines, which further leads to the creation of conditions for the formation of a one-dimensional person, that is, a narrow and deep specialist

Knowledge, being a vital human need, took on the appearance of an alienated force of human progress when it began to develop in the form of science. N. Berdyaev emphasized that the thirst for knowledge, divorced from values, ideals of Good and Beauty, turns into fate in the fate of humanity. Since the main social function science - to improve the means of human life, that is, the task of increasing efficiency, insofar as it gives rise to pragmatism as a lifestyle. The constant desire to rationalize, improve and update equipment, materials, and technology has cemented in the public consciousness the ideals of progress, which increasingly weigh heavily on other meanings and attitudes of human life. The same N. Berdyaev noted in this regard: it is the idea of ​​progress that turns every generation, every person, every era in the history of mankind into a means and instrument for achieving some “ultimate goal”

The most important result of scientific progress is the emergence of civilization as a system of rationalized and technosocialized forms of human existence. In a certain sense, civilization and culture are incompatible. Technified forms of human existence oppose the inner principles of the spiritual essence of man. Culture embodies these principles in values ​​and ideals. Culture is rather a creative laboratory of the human spirit, while science can rather be understood as a creative laboratory of the mind alone. The first consequence of the gap between culture and science is manifested in the increasing replacement of the spiritual meanings and values ​​of life with the material results of progress.

Modern human history is unimaginable without science. Science belongs to modern culture, gives rise to civilization and, thus, connects them into a holistic formation. Science has become a fundamental factor in the survival of humanity, it experiments with its capabilities, creates new opportunities, reconstructs the means of human life, and through this it changes the person himself. The creative possibilities of science are enormous, and they are increasingly transforming culture. It can be argued that science has a certain cultural role; it gives culture rationalistic forms and attributes. The ideals of objectivity and rationality in such a culture become increasingly important. But this leads to the fact that the values ​​of subjectivity are supplanted: personal, emotional and sensory components of culture, without them there is no real person. Culture is always morally charged; in this sense, it is more organic to the essence of man, while science is more alienated, it is more conventional. The value of scientific knowledge is proportional to its usefulness, but this is essentially a technocratic characteristic. Science expands the space for technocratic attributes, enriches human consciousness with technocratic meanings and meanings, but these are all elements of civilization. It can be argued that in the history of mankind, science acts as a civilizing force, and culture as a spiritualizing force. Science creates, according to V. Vernadsky's definition, the noosphere - the sphere of reason, rational living. Rationality does not always fit into the requirements of morality. In the culture of the 20th century, the struggle here is intensifying, and it is unclear how this situation will be resolved. For this reason, modern culture is not harmonious and balanced. Most likely, the contradiction between rationality and morality will not be resolved until the history of mankind fulfills the ancient commandment: “Know thyself!” The knowledge intensity of culture is increasing and this is an indicator of the progress of human history. But “humanity” must also grow, because it is an indicator of the humanity of historical progress. Only the synthesis of both gives hope that a humanistic civilization will be built.

4.6. Ideology

Until recently special attention was given to another component of spiritual culture - ideology . For the first time, the problem of ideology was posed and resolved in the most detailed way by the German philosophers K. Marx and F. Engels. In “German Ideology” and other works, they use the category “ideology” in accordance with the tradition that developed at the end of the 18th-19th centuries, when this term was used in a negative sense, characterizing “dreams alien to reality” and “false consciousness.” But K. Marx and F. Engels bring social characteristics into the analysis of ideology. They view ideology as a complex social formation that is formed and functions within the framework of superstructural systems. Ideology is defined as a functional characteristic of social consciousness, reflecting social existence from the standpoint of the interests of certain social groups, classes, communities and serving these interests

Hence, ideology represents the self-awareness of a social subject: social groups, national and other communities, class. Only in ideology do the specific interests of social groups, classes and communities find their awareness, justification and systematized expression. It should also be borne in mind that certain forms of social consciousness take on an ideological character only within the framework of certain social institutions and social organizations representing them: the state, political parties, churches, corporate associations, etc. It should be noted that the opposite tendency is expressed by humanism. As an example of an ideological direction, we can cite the method of socialist realism - this is a certain artistic canon. But this canon has a pronounced ideological character. The characteristics of this method contain formulated ideological guidelines for the process of artistic creativity, as well as certain social assessments and criteria for this creativity. The method of socialist realism acted as dogmatic and because it was interpreted as the only true one, closing the possibilities for the manifestation of all other creative methods

Thus, one cannot consider ideology only as a separate component of culture - it is most likely a kind of superstructure over spiritual culture itself, since it permeates all areas of spiritual culture.

4.7. Moral.

Moral arises after the myth goes into the past, where a person internally merges with the life of the collective and was controlled by various magical taboos that programmed his behavior at the level of the unconscious. Now a person requires self-control in conditions of relative internal autonomy from the team. This is how the first moral regulations arise - duty, shame, honor. With an increase in a person’s internal autonomy and the formation of a mature personality, such a moral regulator as conscience arises. Thus, morality appears as internal self-regulation in the sphere of freedom, and moral requirements for a person grow as this sphere expands. Developed morality is the realization of man’s spiritual freedom; it is based on the affirmation of man’s self-worth, regardless of the external expediency of nature and society.

Perhaps I paid excessive attention to the spiritual component of culture, to the detriment of the material, as you know, according to Marxist-Leninist philosophy, it is existence that determines consciousness, and this fact is, as a rule, relevant, but we should not forget the centuries-old wisdom: “In the beginning was the word.. ". Therefore, in my opinion, it is the spiritual component that is the fundamental driving mechanism for the development of culture and society.

5. CONCLUSION

Spiritual culture- the most important type of culture, including intellectual and aesthetic activity humanity - undoubtedly has priority importance, since satisfying the high spiritual needs of humanity is a much more sublime and significant mission.

Literature.

1. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 2nd edition, volume 18, pp. 507-510.

2. Cultural studies. Textbook for students of higher educational institutions. Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 1998 – 676 pp.

3. Cultural studies. History of world culture: textbook for universities, ed. prof. A.N. Markova, - M.: UNITY, 2000 – 600 pp.

4. Cultural studies: training manual, ed. A.A. Radugin, - M.: Center, 2000 – 352 pages.

5. Simichev D.A. Culturology: a textbook for universities, - M.: “Prior”, 1998 – 352 pp.

6. Cultural studies. edited by Dracha G.N. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998 – 576 pp.

Spiritual culture of the individual and society.

Science and education in the modern world.

Levels and methods of scientific knowledge.

Education and its significance for the individual and society.

Legal regulation of education in the Russian Federation. Rights and obligations of participants in the educational process.

Morality, art and religion as elements of spiritual culture.

Moral choice and moral self-control of the individual.

Art and its role in people's lives.

Types of arts

Religion and its role in the life of society.

World religions.

Religion and church in the modern world. Religious associations in Russia. Freedom of conscience.

Lectures on the topic: Human spiritual cultureand society

1. Spiritual culture of the individual and society

The concept and features of modern spiritual culture
The number of definitions of the concept “culture” in science is extremely large, and each of them in its own way reflects the multidimensional nature of culture. This word goes back to Latin culture, meaning “cultivation”, “processing”. We often use this term in different senses. For example, ancient culture, culture of communication, object of culture, cultured person, etc. The diversity of cultural concepts can be expressed in three senses:
- in a broad sense culture - this is a complex of constantly updated forms, principles, methods and results of active creative activity of all people in all spheres of public life; it is everything that is created by the hands and mind of man. Culture in this sense is opposed to nature. Nature is what exists independently of humans, what is natural. Culture is something created by man. Examples of culture in this sense: ancient culture, Roman culture, modern culture;
- in a narrow sense - a process of active creative activity, during which spiritual values ​​are created, transmitted, and consumed. In this sense, the concept of “culture” practically coincides with the concept of “art”. Examples of culture in the narrow sense: culture of dance, culture of singing folk songs;
— in the narrowest sense, culture is a set of norms that determine human behavior; the degree of education of a person. They usually say that if a person is well brought up, then he is cultured and has culture.
Since activity is divided into material and spiritual, and culture in the broad and narrow senses is directly related to activity, then culture can be divided into material and spiritual. Material items include household items, means of labor, etc. For the spiritual - poems, fairy tales, etc. It should be borne in mind that this division is very arbitrary. There are many objects and phenomena that can at first glance be classified as objects of both material and spiritual culture. For example, a book. She is material. But the book contains an object of the spiritual world - text. IN in this case belonging to a culture can be determined by which element of the cultural object is the main one. In a book, of course, it is text, not cover and sheets of paper. Therefore, it should be understood as an object of spiritual culture.
The functions of culture are diverse and it is unlikely that it will ever be possible to compile a complete list of them. Let us highlight the main functions of culture:
- cognitive - culture helps the study of society, people, country;
- evaluative - culture helps to evaluate the phenomena of reality, differentiates (distinguishes) values, enriches traditions;
- regulatory - culture forms norms and rules governing the behavior of a person as a member of society;
- informative - culture transmits knowledge, values, experience of previous generations and helps to exchange them;
- communicative - culture develops a person through communication, during which cultural values ​​are preserved, transmitted and replicated;
- socialization function - culture is the most important means of socialization, since it accustoms the individual to social roles and the desire for self-improvement.
Scientists distinguish three forms of culture: folk, elite, mass. They are all closely interconnected and influence each other. Let's look at each of them.
Folk culture includes creations, most often created by amateurs (non-professionals) who remain anonymous. The elements of this culture are simple in content and at the same time have artistic beauty, originality, and are designed for a wide audience. Folk culture includes, for example, folk tales, legends, well-known jokes, folk songs.
Elite culture involves the creation by professionals of such creations that are inaccessible to the common public. Understanding them requires education and certain preparation. Elite culture is aimed more at expressing meanings than at external effects. Examples of creations of elite culture: an opera work, organ music, a highly artistic film with complex content, a ballet.
A distinctive feature of mass culture (as opposed to elitist and folk culture) is its commercial orientation. The objects of this culture are standard, easy to understand, designed for mass audience, can focus on the base needs of a person, sometimes aimed at shocking the public. Objects of mass culture are quickly replicated, which is why their artistic originality and taste are lost. Objects of mass culture include, for example, pop music, kitsch, and club culture.
Mass culture is a historically recent phenomenon. The prerequisites for the formation of this culture arose in the 18th-19th centuries, but it developed in the 20th century. This was facilitated by the rapid development of means of replication and dissemination of mass culture - television, the Internet, sound recording equipment, etc. Today mass culture is an integral part of our lives. The influence of this culture on modern society is contradictory. The positive influence is that mass culture helps to understand the world, socialize people, it is democratic, and its objects can be used by almost everyone; this culture is addressed to the needs and aspirations of people. The negative impact is due to the fact that mass culture as a whole impoverishes the culture of the country and people, lowering the overall level of the spiritual life of society; it is designed for passive consumption, impoverishes people’s tastes, for some it replaces real life, and imposes certain preferences and ideas that do not always correspond to the spirituality of the people.
The culture of any people or nation is very heterogeneous. Usually it includes:
- subculture - part general culture people, nation, value system inherent in a social group. For example, youth, male, professional, criminal subcultures. All these subcultures are distinguished by features specific to them. For example, the distinctive features of the youth subculture are a focus on conspicuous consumption, self-searching and bold experiments, democratic behavior, etc.;
- counterculture - a direction in the development of modern culture that opposes the foundations of the spiritual life of the people, the “official” culture, and traditional subcultures. An example of counterculture: traditions and values ​​of skinheads and punks. Counterculture tries to break the established values ​​of national culture.
In modern times, the development of cultures of different peoples has become nonlinear and often unpredictable. Thus, the dialogue of cultures—the interaction of cultures of different nations—has intensified. This leads to the enrichment of cultures due to their mutual influence on each other. At the same time, the rapid development of mass culture has led to a spiritual crisis, a blurring of ideals and moral guidelines, especially among young people. Mass culture often instills false values ​​of “freedom from,” social protest, etc. In this regard, etiquette—a set of patterns of correct behavior that every young person must learn—becomes important. Etiquette gives stability to social interactions.
The most important role in preserving cultural norms, traditions, and folk etiquette belongs to cultural institutions - museums, theaters, libraries. The state finances these institutions by providing state guarantees of freedom of access to cultural property. Thus, the use of library collections is in most cases free for everyone. Students are often given free entry to museums.
Interesting facts. In the culture of every nation, subcultures can be distinguished. Sometimes they are destructive (i.e. destructive, illegal) in nature, such as skinheads. At the same time, there are many subcultures that are only outwardly very different from generally accepted examples. They often contain elements of buffoonery. For example, in Mexican culture there is a subculture of guacheros. Her followers wear
boots with long narrow toes. And a subculture emerged thanks to popular tribal music, which, according to tradition, could only be danced to in similar shoes. People began to compete with each other in the length of their shoe toes. Today, representatives of the guachero subculture wear shoes with tightly curled, very long toes.
In the 1960-1970s. In the world, including in the USSR, the youth subculture of the Beatles arose and became popular. The Beatles are an English musical group of the 60s. XX century, which appeared in Liverpool, in which 4 people took part, playing rock and roll. Fans wore T-shirts with images of the band members and tried to dress like the Beatles.

2. Science and education in the modern world

2.2.1. Science and scientific thinking
Science - part of the modern spiritual sphere of society. It is usually understood in three ways. So science is:
1) a social institution, represented by special institutions (academies of sciences, research institutes, etc.) producing new scientific knowledge;
2) a branch of spiritual activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge for society (research, experimental and design developments, scientific research, etc.);
3) a special system of knowledge (for example, biology, chemistry). Science is divided into several branches:
— natural sciences — natural sciences: biology, chemistry, ecology, etc.;
- sciences about man and society - humanities and social sciences: anthropology (philosophical science about the essence of man), ethics (the science of good and evil, proper and improper behavior), aesthetics (the science of beauty, the standards of beauty), history, philology and etc.;
- science of technology - technical sciences: mechanics, metallurgy, etc.;
sciences about numerical patterns - mathematical sciences: algebra, geometry, etc.
Science is a theoretical phenomenon. At the same time, it is connected with practice. According to the degree of connection with practice, the following sciences can be distinguished:
- fundamental - they lack a direct focus on practice. Fundamental sciences study the most abstract patterns. Examples of such sciences are mathematics, anthropology, history, etc.;
— applied — sciences directly aimed at practice, solving industrial and social problems. Applied sciences include mechanics, metallurgy, economics, etc.
Science performs a number of functions. Let us highlight the main functions of science:
- cognitive - science carries out knowledge of the world, searches and explains the laws of its development;
- predictive - science, based on research of the present, tries to present a picture of the future;
— social — science helps society;
— material and production — science, through the introduction of the latest achievements developed by scientists, develops the production sector;
- worldview - science influences the formation of a worldview, helping a person not only explain the knowledge known to man about the world, but also build it into a system.
Sometimes it is difficult to determine the function of science in any example. After all, for example, while working on the problems of developing a new material for building roads, a scientist both learns new things and tries to help society. It is important to understand that the function is determined by the main goal of the scientist’s activity in the example. In this case, the main thing for a scientist is to try to help society. This means that the function of science is social. But if an astronomer, studying a map of the movement of celestial bodies, tries to predict the development of the Universe millions of years in advance, then science in this case performs a predictive function. For the main goal of science in this case is to make a forecast. If a historian-scientist studies the history of the military campaigns of Ivan the Terrible, then in this case the main function of science is cognitive.
Science is a complex element of spiritual culture, developing in a contradictory way. For a long time, scientists believed that science develops evolutionarily - smoothly, gradually, due to the increase in knowledge. American philosopher T. Kuhn in the middle of the 20th century. put forward a different theory of the development of scientific knowledge - as a spasmodic, revolutionary process, manifested in the form of a periodic change of scientific paradigms. A paradigm is a major scientific discovery that changes the vector of development of science and is a model for setting and solving scientific problems for a certain time in advance.
For example, the modern paradigm of science is nanotechnology.
A change in scientific paradigms is a scientific revolution. It overturns the fundamental principles of science. For example, in the Middle Ages it was believed that the Sun moved around the Earth. At the same time, Nicolaus Copernicus changed the scientific paradigm by proving that the Earth revolves around the Sun. This discovery overturned many scientific principles that had previously been considered irrefutable.
Scientific knowledge is heterogeneous. Some scientific knowledge has been absolutely proven; for another part, scientists are trying to derive proof, etc. Scientific knowledge is usually expressed in the following forms:
— hypothesis - an assumption based on intuition, scientific laws that indirectly affect the research problem, facts known to science. For example, a scientist collected many facts about how a flowering plant develops. Based on the initial review of the data, he put forward a hypothesis - most flowering plants need sunlight;
— pattern - a connection established by science between two or more phenomena or facts. A scientific pattern can be considered a connection between a revolution and a decline in the level of economic development in a country: the overthrow of power more often leads to instability economic development;
— scientific law - a scientifically proven pattern, an objective, significant, repeating, stable connection between phenomena, facts, processes. For example, a scientific law - the arrival of a cyclone causes rain and cloudy weather;
— theory - the most developed form of scientific knowledge, holistically reflecting the natural and significant connections in a certain area of ​​reality. A scientific theory includes a number of scientific laws. For example, scientific theory is A. Einstein’s theory of relativity, which includes many concepts, provisions, and laws.
Interesting facts. For a long time, all sciences developed within the framework of philosophy. For example, Pythagoras, known for his research in geometry, was primarily a philosopher.
As philosophical knowledge developed, private sciences began to separate from it. Mathematics and medicine were among the first to stand out. Later, already in the modern era, the humanities gradually emerged. One of the last, about three decades ago, to acquire its own field of study was the science of culture—cultural studies.
If earlier special sciences looked for their own area of ​​research and studied specific problems, today interdisciplinary research is becoming the most popular, i.e. research at the intersection of sciences.

Levels and methods of scientific knowledge

In scientific knowledge, and sometimes in some other types of knowledge, the following levels are distinguished:
— empirical — presupposes the goal of collecting, describing, highlighting individual facts, recording them in order to later, at a theoretical level, obtain conclusions;
- theoretical - pursues the goal of summarizing the collected facts, exploring them, establishing patterns between them and obtaining new knowledge, drawing conclusions.
Example: a biologist studies the dependence of tree height on climate. He suggests that in areas with a warm climate, trees are, on average, taller. To prove this, the scientist went to the southern regions, measured the height of 1000 trees, and wrote them down in a notebook. This was the empirical level of knowledge. Next, already in the laboratory, the biologist calculated the average height of trees in different areas, compared, and obtained evidence for the hypothesis - an assumption that he had made earlier. This was the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.
An empirical level of knowledge without a theoretical one is possible, but it does not make sense - the scientist will only collect a description of individual facts and will not be able to obtain any new knowledge. The theoretical level without the empirical level is in principle impossible - there will be no set of facts from which new knowledge can be derived.
A scientist carrying out scientific knowledge uses special methods. The result of the research depends on the accuracy and literacy of their application - what truth will be obtained and how accurate the knowledge will be. The method of scientific knowledge is a developed, justified set of research techniques that allows one to obtain new scientific knowledge. Let us highlight the main methods of scientific knowledge.
1. Methods of the empirical level of knowledge:
- observation - purposeful and organized perception of the object of study, the dynamics of its changes without influencing it;
— experiment — study of an object or process by purposefully influencing it in natural or laboratory conditions;
— questionnaire — mass written survey;
- interviewing - an oral conversation with a participant in an event, an eyewitness, etc.
2. Theoretical level methods:
- analysis - the process of mental or real splitting of an object of study into its simplest components;
- synthesis - the reverse of analysis, the process of mental or real reunification, combining parts into a whole;
— abstraction — mental distraction from properties or characteristics of the object of study that are unimportant for the researcher, highlighting the main thing;
- modeling - reproducing individual characteristics of one object on another, creating mental or real copies of the object of study - models;
- classification - a method of distributing objects of study into groups in accordance with any criterion;
- induction - generalization, obtaining new general knowledge based on already known particular premises;
— deduction — obtaining new private knowledge based on already proven general laws and theories.
For example, a sociologist studies the dynamics (changes) in the attitude of Russians to current social problems. At the empirical level, he can create a questionnaire and conduct a survey. The use of surveillance on social networks and on the street during public events will also be effective. A sociologist can also use the interview method and conduct a conversation with residents about their attitude to the issue under discussion. All these methods will help the scientist collect the necessary facts for further theoretical study.
At the theoretical level, a sociologist can apply many methods. Leading among them is analysis. The problem of the attitude of Russians to pressing social problems is multifaceted and involves an assessment of a number of economic and political factors, including the standard of living of the population, unemployment, rising prices, etc. The sociologist will highlight these aspects, decompose the problem being studied into separate components, i.e. will carry out the analysis. Having studied all these aspects, he will carry out a synthesis. It is also possible to use the abstraction method. When studying a problem, a sociologist may well ignore everyday problems, which his respondents focused on (those whom he interviewed and questioned). Any research also involves induction and deduction.
The use of scientific research methods is the key to a scientist’s success and the basis for the accuracy of the knowledge he receives. The scientist is free to set goals scientific research, choosing methods for obtaining new knowledge. However, this does not mean the ability to freely interpret scientific truths. Freedom of scientific research presupposes the responsibility of the scientist for his discoveries. The relevance of such responsibility of a scientist to society in lately sharply increased due to the ambiguity of the consequences of scientific discoveries. For example, the discovery of nuclear energy contributed to the rapid development of the electric power industry and the emergence of new, cheaper and more efficient energy sources. At the same time, strict control over nuclear energy is necessary. A series of fatal errors in the management of a nuclear facility in 1986 led to an explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. In addition, nuclear technologies have increased the vulnerability of the world order - they began to be used for military purposes in the development of weapons of mass destruction.
Several years ago, scientists were discussing the consequences of the launch of the Large Hadron Collider. With its help it was supposed to obtain antimatter. At the same time, some physicists expressed ideas that antimatter could begin to absorb matter, thereby expanding. In these experiments, the social responsibility of scientists is enormous.
Interesting facts. The number of possible research methods in science is extremely large. The textbook covers only the most important ones. An interesting research method in sociology, which is successfully used in other sciences, is content analysis, proposed by the French journalist J. Kaiser.
This method aims to calculate the frequency of mentions of something. For example, a researcher set out to study the popularity of politicians before elections. He can rank candidates based on their mentions in the press, online space, etc.
Content analysis is divided into two main types: quantitative (calculating the frequency of citations without analyzing the context, i.e. assessing a person or fact when mentioned) and qualitative (calculating the number of positive and negative mentions).

Education and its importance for the individual and society

Education is the most important component of the spiritual culture of society. It is usually understood in several senses:
1) a set of systematized knowledge, abilities, skills, competencies acquired by a person independently or in the process of studying in specially created educational institutions, as a rule, confirmed by documents (certificate, diploma, etc.). We can say: “A person has a secondary (higher) education,” using the term being studied in this sense;
2) a purposeful process of training and education carried out in specially created educational institutions. Using the term “education” in this sense, we can say: “The process of education is carried out in school”;
3) a social institution, represented by educational institutions, designed to prepare and include people in various spheres of society, introducing them to the culture of a given society, transferring to them the social experience of previous generations. This social institution can include, for example, a school.
Education performs a variety of functions, among which the main ones can be identified:
— cultural — dissemination of culture in society, transmission of cultural achievements to new generations;
— social — helping individuals achieve new statuses. Education is the most important channel of social mobility, a means of obtaining new statuses. Having received an education, it is easier for a person to obtain a new status;
— educational — the formation of values ​​and life ideals among representatives of the younger generation; education of students;
— economic — formation of the social and professional structure of society, development of professional economic communities, assistance in economic development through the transfer of professional knowledge, etc.
Since September 1, 2013, it has been valid in Russia new law“On education in the Russian Federation.” He changed the national education system. From now on, the education system includes:
1) federal state educational standards and federal state requirements, educational standards, educational programs of various types, levels and (or) orientations;
2) organizations carrying out educational activities, teaching staff, students and parents (legal representatives) of minor students;
3) federal government bodies and government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation that carry out public administration in the field of education, and local government bodies that carry out management in the field of education, advisory, advisory and other bodies created by them;
4) organizations providing educational activities, assessing the quality of education;
5) associations of legal entities, employers and their associations, public associations operating in the field of education.
The law establishes the levels of education and the corresponding educational institutions:
— preschool (kindergarten or special educational institutions for children);
primary general (4 grades secondary school);
— basic general (9 school grades);
— general secondary (full course of secondary school);
— secondary vocational (vocational schools, technical schools, colleges);
- higher education - bachelor's degree (as a rule, the full course is 4 years at an institute, academy, university);
- higher education - specialty, master's degree (usually 5 years for a specialty or 2 years in addition to a bachelor's degree for a master's degree at an institute, academy, university);
— higher education — training of highly qualified personnel (postgraduate studies, residency for doctors at universities, scientific institutions).
In addition to those mentioned, our country has a whole network of additional education institutions - business schools, language, theater, music schools, courses, etc.
Education is a dynamic social institution that changes in accordance with the requirements of the time. Trends in the development of education can be identified:
— humanization of education — increasing the attention of educational institutions, their administration and teachers, teachers to the personality of students, their needs and interests. Humanization can manifest itself in the prohibition of unfair punishments, the individualization of education, the creation of special conditions for people with disabilities, the expansion of the network of various educational institutions, etc.;
— humanitarization of education — increasing the role of humanitarian and social subjects (history, law, political science, cultural studies, economics, sociology, etc.) in the educational process of schools and universities, allocating more hours to their study in the curriculum;
— democratization of education — expansion of rights and freedoms educational institutions, teachers and students, increasing the accessibility of education, including for the lower classes of society;
— computerization of education — expanding the scope of application of the latest computer technologies in the educational process. For example, many schools today use not only educational computer programs, but also interactive whiteboards, etc.;
— internationalization of education — integration (bringing together) educational systems of different countries, bringing them to a single standard. For example, today in many countries the so-called Bologna process is underway - a unified system of levels is being created higher education- Bachelor's and Master's degrees. Our country also introduced these levels of higher education several years ago instead of specialty;
— an increase in the duration of education is a trend manifested in the lengthening of the terms of both general education and professional training. Thus, today the idea of ​​“education throughout life” is actively developing, the meaning of which is that even after graduating from a university, a person must continue his education in the form of self-study or periodically improve his qualifications through courses in order to remain a sought-after specialist.
Interesting facts. School education in all countries has been and is given great importance. Education educates a new generation, which is the future.
As the chronicle testifies, the first school in Rus' arose back in 988 during the reign of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich. It was called “Book Learning.” Prince Vladimir gave the order to select children from the families of the “best people,” but for them, studying at school became a test. Mothers did not want to send their children to Book Education, seeing them off with tears and lamentations, as if on the last journey of the dead.
The mass practice of school education was introduced by Yaroslav the Wise. He was able to gather three hundred children in Novgorod and gave the order to “teach them books.” Thus the first mass school was opened. This practice quickly spread throughout Rus' - educational institutions were opened at monasteries.
During the era of the Mongol yoke, the development of education in our country slowed down. Schools began to open again only in the 16th century. The reforms of Peter I brought a big impetus to the development of education. He founded large quantities schools of marine, navigation and digital sciences.

Legal regulation of education in the Russian Federation. Rights and obligations of participants in the educational process

The legal regulation of education in our country is carried out in accordance with the Federal Law of December 29, 2012 No. 273-FZ “On Education in the Russian Federation”. It came into force on September 1, 2013.
In Russia, for citizens under 18 years of age, it is mandatory to receive basic general education. Parents are obliged to ensure that their children receive basic general education. The state guarantees free and publicly accessible general education at any level, as well as free secondary vocational and higher education on a competitive basis.
The organization of admission of citizens to professional educational organizations for training in secondary vocational and higher education programs is carried out by an admissions committee, which is approved in each technical school, college, and university. The admissions committee organizes entrance tests (exams, interviews, etc.), compiles rating lists of applicants and develops draft orders for the admission of applicants. Enrollment orders are signed by the director (rector of the university).
An educational organization must have a license for educational activities. The license gives the right to conduct the educational process, but not to issue state-issued educational documents. The right to issue such educational documents belongs to educational organizations that have a certificate of state accreditation. Accreditation is a procedure for establishing the conformity of the quality of education in a specific school, technical school, college, university, etc. requirements of the federal state educational standard.
The educational organization is obliged to familiarize the applicant and (or) his parents (legal representatives) with its charter, with a license to carry out educational activities, with a certificate of state accreditation, with educational programs and other documents regulating the organization and implementation of educational activities, the rights and responsibilities of students .
The admissions committee is obliged to inform applicants about the rules of admission, the number of places for study at the expense of the federal budget (free of charge).
Admission to higher education institutions is carried out based on the results of the Unified State Exam (USE). Unified State Examination results are valid for four years. An applicant has the right to retake the mandatory exam on a reserve day once a year, and the optional Unified State Examination only after a year. An applicant has the right to apply for admission to no more than five universities per year, in each of which he can choose no more than three desired areas of training (specialties).
In accordance with the law, students are granted the following rights:
1) the choice of an organization carrying out educational activities, the form of education and the form of training after receiving basic general education or after reaching eighteen years of age;
2) providing conditions for learning, taking into account the characteristics of their psychophysical development and health status;
3) training according to an individual curriculum, including accelerated training, within the limits of the educational program being mastered in the manner established by local acts of the educational organization;
4) participation in the formation of the content of their professional education, subject to compliance with federal state educational standards;
5) selection of optional (optional for a given level of education, profession, specialty or area of ​​training) and elective (mandatory) academic subjects, courses, disciplines;
6) mastering, along with academic subjects, courses, disciplines (modules) in the educational program being mastered, any other academic subjects, courses, disciplines (modules) taught in the organization;
7) crediting by the organization carrying out educational activities, in the manner established by it, of the results of students’ mastery of academic subjects, courses, disciplines (modules), practice, additional educational programs in other organizations carrying out educational activities;
8) deferment from conscription for military service;
9) respect for human dignity;
10) freedom of conscience, information, free expression of one’s own views and beliefs;
11) holidays;
12) academic leave;
13) transfer to obtain education in another profession, specialty and (or) area of ​​training, in another form of education;
14) transition from paid training to free training on the basis of local acts of the organization;
15) participation in the management of an educational organization in the manner established by its charter (for example, participation in the activities of self-government councils);
16) appealing acts of an educational organization in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
17) free use of library and information resources, educational, production, scientific base of the educational organization;
18) use, in the manner established by local regulations, of medical and health infrastructure, cultural objects and sports facilities of an educational organization;
19) development of their creative abilities and interests, including participation in competitions, olympiads, exhibitions, shows, physical education events, sports events, including official sports competitions, and other public events;
20) encouragement for success in educational, physical education, sports, social, scientific, scientific and technical, creative, experimental and innovative activities;
21) combining education with work without compromising the development of the educational program, the implementation of an individual curriculum on the basis of a local act of the organization.
Students of Russian educational organizations are obliged to:
1) conscientiously master the educational program, carry out the individual curriculum, including attending training sessions provided for by the curriculum or individual curriculum, carry out self-training to classes, complete assignments, data teaching staff as part of an educational program;
2) comply with the requirements of the charter of the organization carrying out educational activities, internal regulations, rules of residence in hostels and boarding schools and other local regulations on the organization and implementation of educational activities;
3) take care of maintaining and strengthening one’s health, strive for moral, spiritual and physical development and self-improvement;
4) respect the honor and dignity of other students and employees of the organization carrying out educational activities, not create obstacles to other students receiving education;
5) take care of the property of the organization carrying out educational activities.
For failure to comply with or violation of the charter of an organization carrying out educational activities, internal regulations, rules of residence in dormitories and boarding schools and other local regulations on the organization and implementation of educational activities, measures may be taken against students disciplinary action— reprimand, reprimand, expulsion from an organization engaged in educational activities. Expulsion does not apply to schoolchildren studying in basic programs
General education is compulsory in Russia. No disciplinary action will be taken To students in educational programs of preschool, primary general education, as well as To students with disabilities.
Interesting facts. Accreditation of educational activities is the most important way to guarantee the rights of applicants and students to receive a quality education. Based on the results of accreditation examinations, dozens of universities and colleges are annually deprived of state accreditation. Students are transferred to other accredited educational institutions.
Before entering a university, you should ask whether the educational institution has a certificate of accreditation for the field of study (specialty) in which you plan to study. You can do this on the website Federal service for supervision in the field of education and science or in the admissions committee of an educational institution 1.

2. Morality, art and religion as elements of spiritual culture

The essence of morality
Moral - a form of social consciousness, including values, rules, requirements regulating people's behavior. In other words, these are the socially accepted ideas of people about proper and improper behavior, about good and evil. Religion, as one of the components, includes the principles of morality. Moral attitudes are also characteristic of ethical teachings. Morality today regulates the relationships of people in any society.
Scientists suggest that taboos became the primary form of morality. Taboos are strict prohibitions on certain actions. For example, already in ancient societies taboos were introduced on sexual relations with relatives and on committing abusive acts against the dead. Taboos were clothed in mysticism and fear of punishment for violation.
With the development of society, customs arose - historically established, repeatedly repeated forms of action, which in the eyes of members of society acquired mandatory significance. Custom is a habit, an accepted, learned thing, an everyday thing. Customs may change. They cover broad areas of social relations - personal, family, professional, educational, etc. For example, the custom of standing up to greet a teacher entering the classroom is a repeated action in most schools and universities.
spiritual culture of man and society abstract
Deeply rooted in the public consciousness, passed on unchanged from generation to generation, customs and rules of behavior become traditions. Customs are most often followed only because “it’s customary.” Traditions are clothed with emotional overtones - the aspirations and efforts of people to preserve and reproduce traditions. For example, some families pass on traditions from generation to generation and sacredly preserve them.
There are many functions of morality, and it is unlikely that it will ever be possible to compile a complete list of them. Let's highlight the main ones:
- regulatory - morality regulates human behavior in all spheres of public life;
- motivational - morality motivates a person, stimulates his desire to do something or not do something. For example, a young man gave up his seat to his grandmother on public transport. The motive for this act was his moral principles;
- value-oriented - morality is a life guide for a person, shows him what is good and what is bad;
- constitutive - morality establishes the highest forms of human behavior that dominate over all other regulators.
For example, morality establishes the rule “thou shalt not steal.” It has become the supreme regulator in most societies;
- coordination - morality coordinates the actions of people, ensures the consistency of their behavior;
— educational — morality influences a person’s upbringing. Many scientists confuse the concept of morality and morality.
Nevertheless, it is possible to trace the subtle differences in the understanding of these philosophical categories. Morality is a sphere of social consciousness, even a sphere of culture, that generalizes the rules of human behavior. And morality is the specific principles of real human behavior.
Morality is closely interconnected with law. The common features of moral and legal norms are that they are universal, extend their effect to all people, have a common object of regulation - social relations, are based on the concepts of justice, and act as a measure of freedom in society. Morality and law have a similar structure - they include rules of behavior and sanctions for non-compliance. Only these sanctions are different.
At the same time, we can highlight the differences between moral and legal norms:
- morality was formed due to the duration of the development of society and became a form of social consciousness, while law was sanctioned (accepted) by the state;
- moral norms are enforced by force of habit, as a result of belief, education, while norms of law are mandatory and supported by the power of the state;
- failure to comply with moral norms is followed by remorse, public censure, and other informal sanctions; violation of legal norms entails legal liability, imposed by the state;
— moral norms regulate a broader area of ​​social relations, in contrast to legal norms that regulate only relations controlled by the state. For example, relationships of friendship and love are not directly controlled by law, but morality regulates them;
- moral norms are not officially formalized anywhere, while legal norms are most often presented in regulations issued officially.
Moral principles and rules of behavior are an integral part of the moral culture of the individual. The moral culture of an individual is the degree to which an individual has assimilated and supported moral and moral consciousness, culture of society. This is the most important element of education.
Modern moral culture is based on many moral principles. Among them, one can highlight the “golden rule of morality”, expressed by Immanuel Kant: “Act towards other people as you want them to act towards you.” The most important moral principle is also humanism—philanthropy, recognition of everyone’s personality, consideration of its needs and interests, prohibition of violence and aggression. Another moral principle is the moral autonomy of the individual. It means a person’s ability to choose their own actions and take responsibility for them. Individual responsibility is possible when she has the right to determine her own line of behavior. Equally important moral principle also humanism - love of humanity, recognition of the right of every person to happiness. Humanism requires the renunciation of any form of violence against humans.
Interesting facts. Morality is associated not only with human consciousness, but also with neural processes in the brain. It turns out that the neural network (part of the brain) involved in making moral decisions partially overlaps with the network that is responsible for ideas about other people's intentions, and on the network that is associated with ideas about the emotional state of other people (i.e., empathy, ). This confirms the common belief that moral judgments are related to seeing things through someone else's eyes and the ability to perceive other people's feelings.

Moral choice and moral self-control of the individual

Moral standards are set moral ideal - a set of traits that should distinguish a person’s behavior and social contacts with other people. The choice of a specific action always remains with the person. Such a right to choose presupposes responsibility for it. Such social responsibility is realized primarily in social forms. For example, society gives a person the right to choose his line of behavior in relation to other people. At the same time, when fulfilling his desires, a person must focus on the rights and opportunities of others. The above-mentioned categorical imperative of I. Kant is the guarantee of the moral attitude of people towards each other.
With the help of morality, society evaluates not only the practical actions of people, but also their motives, motives and intentions, feelings, desires, etc. At the same time, this sphere of a person’s personality does not manifest itself directly in social interactions, therefore, in this case, a special role belongs to internal regulators. The most important role in moral regulation is played by the formation in each individual of the ability to relatively independently develop and direct his own line of behavior in society without daily external control. This ability is expressed in such concepts as conscience, honor, self-esteem, moral duty.
The most important internal regulator of personality is conscience. Conscience - this is an ethical category that expresses the highest form of an individual’s ability to moral self-control. A person who has developed ideas about conscience will not allow clearly expressed immoral acts, because they may result in moral responsibility in the form of remorse. Conscience is one of the most ancient and intimately personal regulators of human behavior. Along with other moral categories, it allows a person to realize his moral responsibility to other people and society as a whole. Conscience is a kind of internal lynching that does not allow immoral acts and punishes for their commission.
Duty - a high moral obligation, which has become an intrapersonal source of voluntary subordination of one’s will to the tasks of achieving and preserving certain moral values. Debt is another internal regulator of a person’s behavior, based on an awareness of the importance of proper behavior and the inadmissibility of improper behavior. Awareness of duty forces a person to make a moral choice and serve society and its ideals. An example is debt to the Motherland in the form of military service. A considerable part of young men enter the army with the awareness of this duty. Duty is expressed in the form of internal stimulants of human behavior, the awareness of which leads to the implementation of proper (i.e., correct, required by society) behavior. The conscience and duty of an individual always reinforce her honor.
culture society people
Honor - this is an ethical category that includes an individual’s awareness of his social significance and recognition of this significance by society. This category does not allow behavior that would dishonor a person. In society, special importance is attached to the honor of representatives of professions associated with duty to the country and state. Thus, the concept of “officer’s honor” is widely used. At the same time, every person has honor. Each person must protect his honor, the honor of his family, city, people, etc.
Dignity - self-esteem of an individual, his awareness of his qualities, abilities, worldview, duty accomplished and social significance. Dignity is a fusion of many ideas people have about themselves, their personality. A sense of worth causes people to refrain from behavior that could undermine moral self-esteem and the assessment of personality by others.
Thanks to moral self-control, a person develops socially positive life principles - the fundamental ideas that guide a person in life. For example, many men have developed the principle of respectful treatment of women and the inadmissibility of using any pressure, especially violence against her. A person usually carries these principles throughout his life. The principles of life are such regulators of human behavior that color his entire life, they are limiters and regulators of the behavior of each member of society.
Moral choice and the associated moral self-control of the individual are the most important categories that contribute to the development of constructive social interactions between people.
Interesting facts* Conscience, duty, honor, dignity color the behavior of every person. At the same time, scientists argue about the causes and time of their occurrence. The most generally accepted point of view is that moral categories arose as a result of the established external requirements of society for a person. Society punished overly selfish behavior (that is, aimed solely at satisfying one's own needs, even to the detriment of others) and encouraged altruism (activities associated with unselfish concern for the well-being of others).
This theory was put forward by Charles Darwin. According to him, each of us has a desire to care for others; If, due to selfishness, we do not follow this desire and, for example, do not help our neighbor in trouble, then later, when we vividly imagine the misfortune we are experiencing, the desire to help our neighbor will arise again and his dissatisfaction will cause in us a painful feeling of reproach.
Conscience, like other categories, thus arose in the early stages of human development, when social relationships were formed.

Art and its role in people's lives

Art is a human activity that reflects the world in artistic images and is aimed at creating aesthetic values. Art has accompanied the development of society since the birth of man modern type.
Primitive art performed mainly a ritual function - the ancients painted animal figures, ritual signs and used them as objects for magical actions (throwing spears, etc.). Today science knows many types of rock paintings. This primitive genre of art expressed primarily a magical attitude towards the world, i.e. the person believed that with the help of ritual actions over the painted animals he would have good luck in hunting, etc.
Today art expresses an aesthetic attitude towards the world and has little to do with the utilitarian (everyday, practical) needs of a person. The essence of art is human creative self-expression in various forms. For example, an artist’s painting is filled with a sense of beauty, the inspiration of its creator. It does not imply any utilitarian orientation, unlike the rock paintings of primitive people.
Let us highlight the main functions of art:
- educational - art affects people’s feelings and thoughts, influences their upbringing;
socializing - art influences the socialization of a person, helping him become a member of society;
- aesthetic - art shapes the aesthetic tastes and needs of a person;
- hedonistic - art gives people pleasure and pleasure;
- compensatory - art helps restore harmony of spirit, helps calm a person’s mental state;
- cognitive-heuristic - with the help of art a person can learn about the world, people’s relationships, etc.; art reflects those aspects of reality that are difficult for science to access.
This list is not closed; other functions of art can be identified. L.N. Tolstoy argued that art does not convince anyone, it simply infects with ideas. “Infected” with ideas, a person lives differently. He cares
to social problems, ready to help others. This is the most important meaning of art - to form a personality with established aesthetic tastes, requests and guidelines.
Art has a number of specific characteristics: it is figurative and visual, involves artistic invention, focuses attention on beauty, and directly affects the emotional world of the individual.
Art is a specific phenomenon. On the one hand, this is a special form of social consciousness, expressing and fixing, first of all, an aesthetic attitude to the world, a sense of beauty, and on the other hand, it is an intellectual comprehension of the objective world and changing this world according to ideas about what it should be. An artist often paints pictures not only to express his aesthetic feelings, but also to convey meanings and desires. For example, the painting “Black Square” by Kazimir Malevich, which at that time became a challenge traditional art. The author often said that he wanted to show “infinity and eternity” with this picture, that if you look for a long time and with concentration straight into the middle of the square, “... without being distracted by anything, as in the “camera obscura,” then, in the end, you will begin to feel it." Some art critics see in this painting a protest against established, traditional forms of art, against social foundations that have ceased to meet the needs of the time. Any painting contains not only beauty, but also deep meaning and the experiences of the creator.
Every nation tries to preserve and pass on to future generations the creations of its great artists. For this purpose, museums, exhibitions, and art galleries are actively developing in all countries. States finance their activities.
Interesting facts. Art must follow the canons - established rules, traditions. Canons played a special role in icon painting. Thus, since ancient times, ocher, golden, etc. were considered canonical colors in icons. (but not blue). The icons of Our Lady of Kazan and Our Lady of Vladimir were painted precisely with the help of these colors. At the same time, new stylistic directions periodically appear in art. During the era of fragmentation in Rus' (XII-XV centuries), a special school of icon painting was formed - the Novgorod one, which used not only canonical colors. Thus, even the color blue is often found on Novgorod icons.
Painting has been developing for a long time within the framework of the canons set by the Academy of Arts. A special style of painting arose - academicism, the most important distinctive feature of which was the rigid drawing of the contours of figures - it seemed as if the heroes of the paintings were posing. Let us recall, for example, Karl Bryullov’s painting “The Last Day of Pompeii”. The figures look frozen, despite the drama of the events described.
One of the first attempts to contrast their creativity with academicism in Russia was the activity of the Peredvizhniki (“Association of Traveling Exhibitions”) in the last third of the 19th century. (V.I. Surikov, I.E. Repin, I.I. Shishkin, V.M. Vasnetsov, I.N. Kramskoy, etc.). The paintings of the Wanderers retain the features of academicism, but the contours of the figures, as a rule, are less rigidly drawn, which creates the illusion of movement.

Types of arts

Art uses sign-symbolic systems, i.e. generally accepted systems of symbols and signs. They can be expressed in special techniques of image, staging, music, etc. Depending on the specifics of this system, the special “language” of art, the main types of art can be distinguished: architecture, sculpture, decorative and applied arts, literature, music, theater, circus, ballet, cinema, photography, variety art, etc. Let's consider this classification in more detail.
Architecture - a monumental form of art, the purpose of which is to create structures and buildings necessary for the life and activities of mankind, taking into account the norms of aesthetics. The forms of architectural structures differ among different peoples and depend on many factors: geographical and climatic conditions, the landscape of the area, etc. Examples of this type of art can be the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, the building of Moscow State University in Moscow.
Architecture is more closely connected with the development of technology than other arts. It is able to combine with monumental painting, sculpture, decorative and other types of art. An example of this is the decoration of buildings sculptural compositions, picturesque images.
Fine arts - a group of types of artistic creativity that visually reproduce reality. Fine arts include painting, graphics, sculpture, etc.
Graphics include drawings and artistic printed works (engraving, lithography). It is based on the possibility of creating an expressive artistic form by using lines, strokes and spots of different colors applied to the surface of the sheet. Graphics are primarily focused on the relationship of shapes and lines on a sheet of paper or canvas.
Painting captures the real relationships of the colors of the world, in color and through color it expresses the essence of objects, their aesthetic value, verifies their social purpose, their correspondence or contradiction with the environment. This is a flat fine art, the specificity of which lies in the representation, with the help of paints applied to the surface, of an image of the real world, transformed by the creative imagination of the artist. The main thing in painting is the combination of colors. Painting is divided into:
- for monumental (fresco) - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water, or mosaic - an image made of colored stones, smalt, ceramic tiles;
- easel - a canvas that is created on an easel. Painting is represented by various genres: portrait, landscape, still life, historical genre, everyday genre, icon painting, etc.
Sculpture - spatial visual art, mastering the world in plastic images - figures created by a sculptor. The main materials used in sculpture are stone, bronze, marble, and wood. At the present stage of development of society, the number of materials used to create sculpture has expanded: steel, plastic, concrete, etc.
Decorative and applied arts - a type of creative activity to create household items intended to satisfy the utilitarian and artistic and aesthetic needs of people. Decorative and applied arts include products made from a variety of materials and using various technologies that have existed unchanged for many decades and even centuries. These are the so-called folk crafts, passed on from generation to generation in different parts of the world. An example is Yelets lace, Khokhloma painting etc.
Materials for an object of decorative and applied art can be metal, wood, clay, stone, bone. The technical and artistic methods of making products are very diverse: carving, embroidery, painting, embossing, etc. The main characteristic feature of an object of decorative and applied art is decorativeness, which consists in imagery and the desire to decorate, make better, more beautiful.
Literature - a type of art in which the material carrier of imagery is the word. Literary interests include natural and social phenomena, various social cataclysms, the spiritual life of the individual, her feelings. Through the word, the author expresses his attitude to reality. In its various genres, literature covers this material either through a dramatic reproduction of an action, or through an epic narration of events, or through a lyrical self-disclosure of a person’s inner world.
Music - a type of art in which the means of embodying artistic images are organized in a certain way musical sounds. The main elements and expressive means of music are mode, rhythm, meter, tempo, timbre, melody, harmony, polyphony, instrumentation. Music is recorded in musical notation and realized in the process of performance.
Choreography - art, the peculiarity of which is the emphasis on the movements and poses of the human body, poetically meaningful, organized in time and space. Dance interacts with music, together with it forming a musical and choreographic image.
Theater - a type of art that artistically explores the world through dramatic action carried out by a creative team. The basis of theater is dramaturgy. The synthetic nature of theatrical art determines its collective nature: the performance combines the creative efforts of the playwright, director, artist, composer, choreographer, and actor.
Photo - art that reproduces on a plane, through lines and shadows, the contour and shape of the object it conveys. Photography as an art form appeared relatively recently. It has acquired particular development in connection with the advent of the latest means of processing photographic media (computer graphics, etc.).
Cinema (cinematography) - the art of reproducing moving images captured on film onto a screen to create the impression of reality. Cinema is an invention of the 20th century. Its appearance was determined by the achievements of science and technology in the field of optics, electrical and photographic engineering, chemistry, etc.
Interesting facts. The most ancient types of art are architecture, painting, decorative and applied arts, and literature. The origins of theater in our country can also be found in antiquity. The first acting performances were associated with religious festivals or pagan rituals. Since the 11th century. buffoonery and buffoonery became widespread as forms of art. The first royal theater in Russia belonged to Alexei Mikhailovich and existed from 1672 to 1676. Its beginning is associated with the name of the boyar Artamon Matveev.
The birth of cinematography occurs at the end of the 19th century. In 1895, the Lumière brothers were able to create a working cinematograph camera and make several videos. The first films were without sound and involved either the use of text on film or their voice-over at the time of demonstration by announcers. Cinema became sound only in the first half of the 20th century.
In our country, the first film is considered to be the fantastic film narrative “Aelita” (1924). In 1925, the film “Battleship Potemkin” by Sergei Eisenstein was released, which is considered one of the most significant films in the history of Soviet cinema. First Soviet film, which was originally filmed as a sound film, was released in 1931 and was called “A Start to Life.”

Religion and its role in society

Religion plays an important role in the life of society. It can be noted that, to one degree or another, religion has always accompanied the historical path of society. During difficult, turning-point stages in the development of society, the role of religion increased many times over. People often found consolation in it, the meaning of life in the flow of difficulties and social disasters.
Science has not clearly formulated a definition of religion. Let's highlight the most common definitions:
1) religion in a broad sense is belief in the supernatural, in God;
2) religion in the narrow sense - a system of beliefs and rituals that unites people who recognize and support them into a single community (confession).
The functions of religion are manifold. Let's highlight the main ones:
- worldview - religion sets principles, dogmas (positions, doubting the truth of which is considered a sin), predetermining the understanding of the world; religion influences the formation of worldview;
- compensatory - religion gives meaning to life in the human mind, compensates for the limitations, dependence, and powerlessness of people in difficult living conditions. Through rituals, religion consoles a person and helps relieve stress;
- communicative - religion ensures communication of believers with each other, with God, angels, saints;
- regulatory - religion regulates people’s relationships with each other, regulates their behavior;
- integrating - religion unites people - believers - in a community, ensures the stability of church organizations;
- culturally transmitting - religion transmits elements of culture from one people to others, promotes the development of writing and printing.
The most important component of any religion is a set of ethical issues and commandments. For example, the Bible contains the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus Christ, the most important provisions of which are the commandments “Thou shalt not kill!”, “Thou shalt not steal!”, “Thou shalt not commit adultery!”, “Thou shalt not make for thyself an idol!” etc.
Before the formation of modern religions, there were proto-religions (early forms of religions):
- totemism - the worship of any clan, tribe, animal or plant as its mythical ancestor, belief in the protection of any species of animal or plant;
fetishism - belief in special properties, protection of objects, objects of the material world;
- animism - belief in the existence of souls, the spiritualization of the material world and its objects;
- magic - belief in a person’s ability to influence the forces of nature through ritual actions.
Early forms of religions (proto-religions) arose almost simultaneously with the appearance of modern man. With their help, the man tried to explain natural phenomena, found consolation in the difficult years of wars and disasters. The main thing in proto-religions is belief in the ability to change the world, to make it better.
Elements of early forms of religions still remain in the modern world. For example, the cow is revered as a sacred animal in Hinduism (totemism); many religions presuppose material attributes, which are given a special meaning, properties - crosses, idols (fetishism); most religions believe that a person has a soul that separates from the body at the moment of death (animism); religions involve a whole complex of rituals, prayers, with the help of which a person can influence nature, other people, etc. (magic).
Modern religions can be classified:
- polytheistic (assume polytheism). Most religions are endowed with polytheism - Buddhism, Lamaism, paganism, Taoism, etc. Most modern religions are polytheistic;
— monotheistic (assume belief in one God). Religions that profess monotheism include Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. These are later religions. In Christianity, one can note the remnants of polytheism - “God is one in three persons.”
According to the degree of spread of religion, it can be divided into:
- national - religions professed by one people, nation (Judaism);
- global - common among several nations, not tied to any ethnic group. There are three world religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. They are the ones who have the greatest influence in the world today. Buddhism arose around the 6th century. BC V Ancient India. Orthodoxy and Catholicism are the main branches of Christianity, which arose at the turn of the old and new era. Islam arose around the 5th-6th centuries. AD
Interesting facts. Ancient religions in science are often combined with one word - “paganism”. It is not one particular religion, it is many ethnic religions. The main feature of paganism is the spiritualization of nature. Pagan gods personify the forces of nature.
Before the baptism of Rus' in 988 by Prince Vladimir I, paganism was also widespread among the Slavic tribes. Perun, the god of lightning and war, was recognized as the supreme god. Second on the list is Hore, the sun god.
Perhaps Hore in the list duplicates the next deity - Dazh-god, also associated with solar functions (i.e., the functions of the sun god). In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” the Russians are twice spoken of as the grandchildren of Dazhbog, who, apparently, should be understood as the ancestor or patron of the Russian people, their heritage and wealth. More often, Dazhbog is understood as the god of the life-giving forces of nature: rain, wind, sun rays, etc.
Stribog is correlated with Dazhbog as a god - the distributor of wealth. Its functions are not entirely clear to modern science.
Almost nothing is known about the next deity on the list - Simargl. Simargl is presented as a designation for a fairy-tale bird like a vulture or half-dog, half-bird. This mythological character, very popular in Iran, in the Kiev pantheon, apparently, was a completely foreign, “alien” deity.
Last on the list is the name of Mokoshi (goddess of the feminine), the only female character in the pantheon. The cult of Mokoshi was very popular among women for many centuries after the introduction of Christianity. In northern Russia, she was represented as a woman with a large head and long arms, spinning at night.

World religions

World religions today have a huge impact on the development of the entire world community. Let's look at them in more detail. Buddhism comes from the Sanskrit word Budh, meaning enlightenment. Today it is common in South, Southeast and East Asia. There are many followers in Russia - they mainly live in the Republic of Tuva, Buryatia and Kalmykia. The source of the doctrine and the set of sacred rules is the Tipitaka. The founder of Buddhism is considered to be Prince Gautama, who achieved enlightenment through contemplation. The most important thesis of Buddhism is the achievement of enlightenment, understanding of truth through passive, inactive contemplation, abstraction from all earthly desires. The source of all problems and troubles, followers of Buddhism believe, is in earthly desires and needs. They must be renounced.
Christianity is widespread mainly in Europe, North and South America. The main holy book is the Bible. Christianity today is represented by three main branches - Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism. Orthodoxy is more widespread in Eastern Europe, including Russia. Patriarchs are recognized as the heads of Orthodox churches in different countries. Catholics recognize the head of the church as the Pope. Protestantism is represented by many sects and individual movements of Christianity (Lutherans, Anglican Church, Baptists, Adventists, etc.). The Christian religion defends the idea of ​​human sinfulness as the cause of all his misfortunes. According to Christians, only prayer and repentance can get rid of troubles. The main theses of Christianity are patience, humility, and forgiveness.
Islam is the youngest of the world's religions. It is distributed mainly in the Middle East and North Africa. There are many Muslims in Russia - in Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, and the republics of the North Caucasus. The main holy book of Islam is the Koran. There are also other religious sources - Sunnah, Sharia (collection of norms of Muslim law). Islam is a very strict religion. His followers are required to pray five times a day, abstain from consuming certain foods, for women - wear a hijab (a headscarf that covers almost the entire face), etc. According to Muslims, man is a weak creature and he needs to rely on the help and mercy of Allah.
World religions, as well as the most developed national religions, have a special social institution that unites them into confessions (religious groups) - the church. The Church is a social institution, a religious organization, which is based on a single Creed (principles of doctrine), which determines the content of religious ethics and activities, rituals and cults.
Most religions involve active preachers. Their goal is to promote the spread of religion.
They often actively promote the conversion of atheists (those who do not profess any religion) and people of other faiths to their religion. This activity is called proselytism - this is the desire to convert others to one's faith.
World religions, like most national ones, are based on dogmas - provisions that cannot be questioned. For example, in Christianity, one of these dogmas is the recognition of the existence (existence) of God. Doubting this is a terrible sin. The expression of this dogma in Islam is the phrase of the Koran “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.” Religious dogmas are presented in church books (Bible, Koran, etc.).
Religion today has become an element of politics in many countries. Thus, the exercise of power by the president in some countries is based on religious commandments. The President of the United States, upon taking office, swears an oath of allegiance to the state on the Bible. The heads of the Orthodox and Catholic churches often make proposals to stop military conflicts and clashes, and actively participate in peaceful construction.
Interesting facts. In the teachings of Islam there is the concept of “jihad” - many today interpret it as a holy war against infidels. Jihad is declared against the Gentiles, and because of this, wars break out.
Initially, jihad was understood in a completely different way - as a holy war against one’s own shortcomings.

Religion and church in the modern world. Religious associations in Russia. Freedom of conscience

Russia is a secular state, like many other countries. The church is separated from the state. However, this does not mean a ban on religion.
In accordance with the constitutional principle of separation of religious associations from the state, the authorities:
- does not interfere in a citizen’s determination of his attitude to religion and religious affiliation, in the upbringing of children by parents or persons replacing them, in accordance with their convictions and taking into account the child’s right to freedom of conscience and freedom of religion;
- does not impose on religious associations the performance of functions of state authorities, other state bodies, state institutions and local government bodies;
- does not interfere with the activities of religious associations if it does not contradict the Federal Law of September 26, 1997 No. 125-FZ;
— ensures the secular nature of education in state and municipal educational institutions.
The state regulates the provision of tax and other benefits to religious organizations, provides financial, material and other assistance to religious organizations in the restoration, maintenance and protection of buildings and objects that are historical and cultural monuments.
Article 28 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees everyone freedom of conscience, freedom of religion, including the right to profess individually or together with others any religion or not to profess any, to freely choose, have and disseminate religious and other beliefs and act in accordance with them. Freedom of conscience and religion belongs to all persons legally present in the territory of the Russian Federation and does not depend on the citizenship of the person.
It is not allowed to establish advantages, restrictions or other forms of discrimination depending on religious beliefs, except in cases established by federal laws and only to the extent necessary in order to protect the foundations of the constitutional system, morality, health, rights and legitimate interests of a person and citizen, ensuring the defense of the country and the security of the Russian Federation.
No one is obliged to report their attitude to religion and cannot be subjected to coercion when determining their attitude to religion, to profess or refuse to profess religion, to participate or not to participate in worship services, other religious rites and ceremonies, in the activities of religious associations, in teaching religion . It is prohibited to involve minors in religious associations, as well as to teach religion to minors against their will and without the consent of their parents or persons in their stead.
In the modern world, one can note the intensification of the activities of sects - these are religious groups that have separated from the main religious trend and are opposed to it. Often sects involve the cult of their founder, socially negative elements of activity. The term “totalitarian sect” is often used to refer to such sects. An example is the widely known sect in Japan “Aum Shinrikyo” (banned in Russia), which committed a number of terrorist acts.
In accordance with the Federal Law of September 26, 1997 No. 125-FZ “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations,” religious groups and organizations can be liquidated if they carry out:
— violation of public safety and public order;
— actions aimed at carrying out extremist activities;
- coercion to destroy the family;
- infringement of cash, rights and freedoms of citizens;
- causing damage established in accordance with the law
Interesting facts. People's interest in sects and their activities intensifies during difficult, turning-point years. There is a boom in interest in Russia To sects occurred in the 90s. last century, when our country was experiencing a transitional stage from socialism to a market economy.