The list is not complete yet, since it only includes questions from tickets for secondary school or basic level (and were not included, respectively, in-depth study or profile level and national school).

"The Life of Boris and Gleb" end XI - beginning. XII century

"The Tale of Igor's Host" late 12th century.

W. Shakespeare – (1564 – 1616)

"Romeo and Juliet" 1592

J-B. Moliere – (1622 – 1673)

"The tradesman among the nobility" 1670

M.V. Lomonosov – (1711 – 1765)

DI. Fonvizin - (1745 – 1792)

"Undergrowth" 1782

A.N. Radishchev – (1749 – 1802)

G.R. Derzhavin – (1743 – 1816)

N.M. Karamzin – (1766 – 1826)

"Poor Lisa" 1792

J. G. Byron – (1788 – 1824)

I.A. Krylov – (1769 – 1844)

"Wolf in the kennel" 1812

V.A. Zhukovsky – (1783 – 1852)

"Svetlana" 1812

A.S. Griboedov – (1795 – 1829)

"Woe from Wit" 1824

A.S. Pushkin – (1799 – 1837)

"Belkin's Tales" 1829-1830

"Shot" 1829

"Stationmaster" 1829

"Dubrovsky" 1833

"Bronze Horseman" 1833

"Eugene Onegin" 1823-1838

"The Captain's Daughter" 1836

A.V. Koltsov – (1808 – 1842)

M.Yu. Lermontov – (1814 – 1841)

"Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young guardsman and swashbuckling merchant Kalashnikov." 1837

"Borodino" 1837

"Mtsyri" 1839

"Hero of Our Time" 1840

"Farewell, unwashed Russia" 1841

"Motherland" 1841

N.V. Gogol – (1809 – 1852)

"Evenings on a farm near Dikanka" 1829-1832

"The Inspector General" 1836

"Overcoat" 1839

"Taras Bulba" 1833-1842

"Dead Souls" 1842

I.S. Nikitin – (1824 – 1861)

F.I. Tyutchev – (1803 – 1873)

"There is in the primordial autumn..." 1857

I.A. Goncharov – (1812 – 1891)

"Oblomov" 1859

I.S. Turgenev – (1818 – 1883)

"Bezhin Meadow" 1851

"Asya" 1857

"Fathers and Sons" 1862

"Shchi" 1878

ON THE. Nekrasov – (1821 – 1878)

"Railroad" 1864

"Who Lives Well in Rus'" 1873-76

F.M. Dostoevsky – (1821 – 1881)

"Crime and Punishment" 1866

"The Boy at Christ's Christmas Tree" 1876

A.N. Ostrovsky – (1823 – 1886)

"Our people - we'll be numbered!" 1849

"Thunderstorm" 1860

A.A. Fet – (1820 – 1892)

M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin – (1826-1889)

"Wild Landowner" 1869

"The story of how one man fed two generals" 1869

"The Wise Minnow" 1883

"Bear in the Voivodeship" 1884

N.S. Leskov – (1831 – 1895)

"Lefty" 1881

L.N. Tolstoy – (1828 – 1910)

"War and Peace" 1867-1869

"After the Ball" 1903

A.P. Chekhov – (1860 – 1904)

"Death of an Official" 1883

"Ionych" 1898

"The Cherry Orchard" 1903

M. Gorky – (1868 – 1936)

"Makar Chudra" 1892

"Chelkash" 1894

"Old Woman Izergil" 1895

"At the Bottom" 1902

A.A. Blok – (1880 – 1921)

"Poems about a beautiful lady" 1904

"Russia" 1908

cycle "Motherland" 1907-1916

"Twelve" 1918

S.A. Yesenin – (1895 – 1925)

“I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry...” 1921

V.V. Mayakovsky (1893 – 1930)

"Good Treatment for Horses" 1918

A.S. Green – (1880 – 1932)

A.I. Kuprin – (1870 – 1938)

I.A. Bunin – (1879 – 1953)

O.E. Mandelstam – (1891 – 1938)

M.A. Bulgakov – (1891 – 1940)

"White Guard" 1922-1924

"Heart of a Dog" 1925

"The Master and Margarita" 1928-1940

M.I. Tsvetaeva – (1892 – 1941)

A.P. Platonov – (1899 – 1951)

B.L. Pasternak – (1890-1960)

"Doctor Zhivago" 1955

A.A. Akhmatova – (1889 – 1966)

"Requiem" 1935-40

K.G. Paustovsky – (1892 – 1968)

"Telegram" 1946

M.A. Sholokhov – (1905 – 1984)

"Quiet Don" 1927-28

"Virgin Soil Upturned" t1-1932, t2-1959)

"The Fate of Man" 1956

A.T. Tvardovsky – (1910 – 1971)

"Vasily Terkin" 1941-1945

V.M. Shukshin – (1929 – 1974)

V.P. Astafiev – (1924 – 2001)

A.I. Solzhenitsyn – (born 1918)

"Matrenin's Dvor" 1961

V.G. Rasputin – (born 1937)

The idea of ​​protecting the Russian land in works of oral folk art (fairy tales, epics, songs).

The work of one of the poets of the Silver Age.

The originality of the artistic world of one of the poets of the Silver Age (using the example of 2-3 poems of the examinee’s choice).

The Great Patriotic War in Russian prose. (Using the example of one work.)

The feat of man in war. (Based on one of the works about the Great Patriotic War.)

Great Theme Patriotic War in the prose of the twentieth century. (Using the example of one work.)

Military theme in modern literature. (Using the example of one or two works.)

Your favorite poet in Russian literature of the 20th century. Reading his poem by heart.

Russian poets of the 20th century about the spiritual beauty of man. Reading one poem by heart.

Features of the work of one of the modern Russian poets of the second half of the twentieth century. (at the choice of the examinee).

Your favorite poems modern poets. Reading one poem by heart.

Your favorite poet. Reading one of the poems by heart.

The theme of love in modern poetry. Reading one poem by heart.

Man and nature in Russian prose of the 20th century. (Using the example of one work.)

Man and nature in modern literature. (Using the example of one or two works.)

Man and nature in Russian poetry of the 20th century. Reading one poem by heart.

Your favorite literary character.

Review of a book by a modern writer: impressions and evaluation.

One of the works of modern literature: impressions and assessment.

A book by a modern writer that you have read. Your impressions and assessment.

Your contemporary in modern literature. (For one or more works.)

Yours favorite piece modern literature.

Moral issues of modern Russian prose (using the example of a work of the examinee’s choice).

The main themes and ideas of modern journalism. (Using the example of one or two works.)

Heroes and problems of one of the works of modern Russian drama of the second half of the twentieth century. (at the choice of the examinee).

A literary work is the form of existence of literature as the art of words. What makes it artistic?

Reading room of the Russian State Library.

We always feel the special vital concreteness of a literary work. It is always connected with reality and at the same time is not identical to it, it is its image, transformation, artistic reflection. But a reflection “in the form of life,” a reflection that does not just talk about life, but itself appears as a special life.

“Art is a reproduction of reality, a repeated, as if newly created world,” wrote V. G. Belinsky. The dynamics of the content are perfectly captured here work of art. In order to “repeat” a world that is unique in its development and constant self-renewal, it must be “as if created again,” to reproduce an individual phenomenon that, while not being identical to real reality, at the same time will fully express its deep essence and the value of life.

Life is not only material reality, but also life human spirit, this is not only what is, what was realized in reality, but also what was and will be, and what is “possible due to probability or necessity” (Aristotle). “To master the whole world and find expression for it” - this is the artist’s ultimate task, according to the excellent definition of J. V. Goethe. Therefore, reflections on the nature of a work of art are inextricably linked with the deepest philosophical question about what “the whole world” is, whether it represents unity and integrity, and whether it is possible to “find expression for it,” to recreate it in a specific individual phenomenon.

In order for a work to really exist, it must be created by the author and perceived by the reader. And again, these are not just different, externally justified, isolated, internally interconnected processes. In a truly artistic work, “the perceiver merges with the artist to such an extent that it seems to him that the object he perceives was made not by someone else, but by himself” (L.N. Tolstoy). The author acts here, as M. M. Prishvin wrote, in the role of “a persuader, forcing one to look at both the sea and the moon with his own personal eye, which is why everyone, being a unique person, appearing in the world only once, would bring humankind into the world’s repository consciousness, something from oneself into culture.” The life of a work is realized only on the basis of the harmony of the author and the reader - such a harmony that directly convinces that “every person can feel equal to everyone else and everyone else” (M. Gorky).

The work represents an internal, interpenetrating unity of content and form. “Living poems speak themselves. And they are not talking about something, but something,” wrote S. Ya. Marshak. Indeed, it is very important to be aware of this difference and not to reduce the content of a literary work to what it talks about. Content is the organic unity of display, comprehension and assessment of reality, and thoughts and assessments in works of art do not exist separately, but permeate the depicted events, experiences, actions and live only in artistic expression- the only possible form of embodiment of this life content.

The subject of reality, its comprehension and evaluation are transformed into the content of a literary work, only being internally united and embodied in artistic form. Also, any word, any means of speech turns out to be artistically significant only when it ceases to be just information, when life phenomena external to it become its internal content, when a word about life is transformed into life, captured in a literary work as a literary work. in general.

From what has been said it is clear that art form a literary work is not just a “technique”. “What does it mean to finish a lyric poem... to bring the form to the elegance possible for it? - wrote Ya. I. Polonsky. “This, believe me, is nothing more than to refine and bring to the elegance possible in human nature one’s own, this or that feeling... Working on a poem for a poet is the same as working on one’s soul.” Work on understanding the surrounding life and one’s own life, on “one’s soul,” and work on constructing a literary work are not three things for a real writer different types activity, but a single creative process.

L. N. Tolstoy praised the poems of A. A. Fet for the fact that they were “born”. And V.V. Mayakovsky called his article “How to make poetry?” We understand both the opposite and the partial validity of these characteristics. Even if works of art are “born,” it is still not exactly the same as a person is born. And from the article by V.V. Mayakovsky, even with all its polemical exaggerations, it is still quite clear that poetry is “made” in a completely different way from how things are made on a conveyor belt, continuous production. In a literary work there is always this contradiction between organization (“made”) and organicity (“born”), and the highest artistic achievements are characterized by a particularly harmonious resolution of it. Let us recall, for example, the poem by A. S. Pushkin “I loved you: love is still, perhaps...”, the clear construction of which becomes a completely natural expression of a high human feeling - selfless love.

An artificially created verbal and artistic statement is transformed into an organically vital whole, each element of which is necessary, irreplaceable and vitally significant. And to understand that we have before us a work of art means, first of all, to understand and feel that it can only be as it is: both as a whole and in each of its particles.

The life contained within the work, like a small universe, reflects and manifests within itself the universe, the fullness of human life, the entire integrity of being. And the meeting of the author and the reader in art world literary work therefore becomes an irreplaceable form of familiarization with this big world, education of true humanity, formation of a holistic, comprehensively developed personality.

by content

Links

• Sysoeva O. A. Genre approach to the study of literature within the framework of additional education (using the example of Sasha Sokolov’s novel “School for Fools”)
• Theoretical poetics: concepts and definitions. Reader for students of philological faculties. Author-compiler N. D. Tamarchenko

Literature

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See what “Literary genre” is in other dictionaries:

NOVEL (French roman, German Roman; English novel/romance; Spanish novela, Italian romanzo), the central genre (see GENRE) of European literature of the New Time (see NEW TIME (in history)), fictional, in difference from the neighboring genre of the story (see... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Elegy (έλεγεία) is a lyrical poem of a sad, thoughtful mood: this is the content that is now usually put into a word that had a different meaning in previous poetics. Its etymology is controversial: it is derived from the supposed refrain έ λέγε ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

Currently, the most popular and most rich in content form of literary works that reflects modern life with all the variety of issues that concern her. To achieve such a universal meaning, the novel needed... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

Lamentation is one of the ancient literary genres, characterized by lyrical and dramatic improvisation on the themes of misfortune, death, etc. It can be written in both poetry and prose. The style of crying is used, in particular, in some texts of the Bible... Wikipedia

- (poetic) certain type literary work. The main genres can be considered epic, lyrical and dramatic, but it would be more accurate to apply this term to their individual varieties, such as an adventure novel, a clownish comedy... Literary encyclopedia

Genre- GENRE (poetic) a certain type of literary work. The main genres can be considered epic, lyrical and dramatic, but it would be more correct to apply this term to their individual varieties, such as the adventure novel,... ... Dictionary literary terms

- (historical and special used in cinema) a completed film-dramatic work. It must contain a complete, consistent and specific description of the plot, consisting of developed scenes and episodes, dialogues and reveal images... ... Wikipedia

GENRE- literary (from the French genre genus, type), historically developing type of literary work (novel, poem, ballad, etc.); the theoretical concept of painting generalizes the features characteristic of a more or less extensive group of works... ... Literary encyclopedic dictionary

A; m. [French] genre] 1. A historically established type of art or literature, characterized by certain plot, compositional, stylistic and other features; individual species of this genus. Musical and literary genres... encyclopedic Dictionary

Literary genres- a group of literary works united by a set of formal and substantive properties (in contrast to literary forms, the identification of which is based only on formal features).

If at the folklore stage the genre was determined from an extra-literary (cult) situation, then in literature the genre receives a description of its essence from its own literary norms, codified by rhetoric. The entire nomenclature of ancient genres that had developed before this turn was then energetically rethought under its influence.

Since the time of Aristotle, who gave the first systematization of literary genres in his “Poetics,” the idea has become stronger that literary genres represent a natural, once and for all fixed system, and the author’s task is only to achieve the most complete compliance of his work with the essential properties of the chosen genre. This understanding of the genre - as a ready-made structure presented to the author - led to the emergence of a whole series of normative poetics containing instructions for authors regarding exactly how an ode or tragedy should be written; The pinnacle of this type of writing is Boileau’s treatise “ Poetic art"(1674). This does not mean, of course, that the system of genres as a whole and the characteristics of individual genres really remained unchanged for two thousand years - however, changes (and very significant ones) were either not noticed by theorists, or were interpreted by them as damage, a deviation from the necessary models. And only towards the end of the 18th century the decomposition of traditional genre system, associated, in accordance with general principles literary evolution, both with intraliterary processes and with the influence of completely new social and cultural circumstances, went so far that normative poetics could no longer describe and curb literary reality.

In these conditions alone traditional genres began to rapidly die out or become marginalized, others, on the contrary, moved from the literary periphery to the very center of the literary process. And if, for example, the rise of the ballad at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, associated in Russia with the name of Zhukovsky, turned out to be quite short-lived (although in Russian poetry it then gave an unexpected new surge in the first half of the 20th century - for example, in Bagritsky and Nikolai Tikhonov) , then the hegemony of the novel - a genre that normative poets for centuries did not want to notice as something low and insignificant - lasted in European literature for at least a century. Works of a hybrid or undefined genre nature began to develop especially actively: plays about which it is difficult to say whether they are a comedy or a tragedy, poems for which it is impossible to give any definition. genre definition, except that it is a lyric poem. Fall of the Clear genre identifications also manifested itself in deliberate authorial gestures aimed at destroying genre expectations: from Laurence Sterne’s novel “The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman,” which ends mid-sentence to “ Dead souls"N.V. Gogol, where the poem's subtitle, which is paradoxical for a prose text, can hardly fully prepare the reader for the fact that he will now and then be knocked out of the rather familiar rut of a picaresque novel by lyrical (and sometimes epic) digressions.

In the 20th century, literary genres were particularly strongly influenced by the separation of mass literature from literature focused on artistic exploration. Mass literature has once again felt an urgent need for clear genre prescriptions that significantly increase the predictability of the text for the reader, making it easy to navigate through it. Of course, the previous genres were not suitable for mass literature, and it quite quickly formed a new system, which was based on the genre of the novel, which was very flexible and had accumulated a lot of varied experience. At the end of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th, the detective and police novels, science fiction and the ladies' (“pink”) novel took shape. It is not surprising that contemporary literature, aimed at artistic search, sought to deviate as far as possible from the mass literature and therefore moved away from genre definition as far as possible. But since extremes converge, the desire to be further from genre predetermination sometimes led to new genre formation: for example, the French anti-novel did not want to be a novel so much that the main works of this literary movement, represented by such original authors as Michel Butor and Nathalie Sarraute, there are clear signs of a new genre. Thus, modern literary genres (and we already encounter this assumption in the thoughts of M. M. Bakhtin) are not elements of any predetermined system: on the contrary, they arise as points of concentration of tension in one place or another literary space, in accordance with the artistic tasks set here and now by this circle of authors. Special study of such new genres remains a matter for tomorrow.

List of literary genres:

• By shape
  • Visions
  • Novella
  • Tale
  • Story
  • joke
  • novel
  • epic
  • play
  • sketch
• by content
  • comedy
    • farce
    • vaudeville
    • interlude
    • sketch
    • parody
    • sitcom
    • comedy of characters
  • tragedy
  • Drama
• By birth
  • Epic
    • Fable
    • Bylina
    • Ballad
    • Novella
    • Tale
    • Story
    • Novel
    • Epic novel
    • Fairy tale
    • Fantasy
    • Epic
  • Lyrical
    • Oh yeah
    • Message
    • Stanzas
    • Elegy
    • Epigram
  • Lyric-epic
    • Ballad
    • Poem
  • Dramatic
    • Drama
    • Comedy
    • Tragedy

Poem- (Greek póiema), a large poetic work with a narrative or lyrical plot. A poem is also called an ancient and medieval epic (see also Epic), nameless and authored, which was composed either through the cyclization of lyric-epic songs and tales (the point of view of A. N. Veselovsky), or through the “swelling” (A. Heusler) of one or several folk legends, or with the help of complex modifications of ancient plots in the process of the historical existence of folklore (A. Lord, M. Parry). The poem developed from an epic depicting an event of national historical significance (“Iliad”, “Mahabharata”, “Song of Roland”, “Elder Edda”, etc.).

There are many genre varieties of the poem: heroic, didactic, satirical, burlesque, including heroic-comic, poem with a romantic plot, lyrical-dramatic. The leading branch of the genre has long been considered a poem on a national historical or world historical (religious) theme (“The Aeneid” by Virgil, “The Divine Comedy” by Dante, “The Lusiads” by L. di Camoens, “Jerusalem Liberated” by T. Tasso, “ Lost heaven"J. Milton, "Henriad" by Voltaire, "Messiad" by F. G. Klopstock, "Rossiyad" by M. M. Kheraskov, etc.). At the same time, a very influential branch in the history of the genre was the poem with romantic plot features (“The Knight in the Leopard’s Skin” by Shota Rustaveli, “Shahname” by Ferdowsi, to a certain extent, “Furious Roland” by L. Ariosto), connected to one degree or another with the tradition of the medieval , predominantly a chivalric novel. Gradually, in the poems, personal, moral and philosophical issues come to the fore, the lyrical and dramatic elements are strengthened, the folklore tradition- features already characteristic of pre-romantic poems (“Faust” by J. W. Goethe, poems by J. Macpherson, W. Scott). The genre flourished in the era of romanticism, when greatest poets different countries are turning to the creation of the poem. "Top" in the evolution of the genre romantic poem works acquire a socio-philosophical or symbolic-philosophical character (“Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” by J. Byron, “The Bronze Horseman” by A. S. Pushkin, “Dzyady” by A. Mickiewicz, “The Demon” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Germany, winter's tale"G. Heine).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century. the decline of the genre is obvious, which does not exclude the appearance of individual outstanding works (“The Song of Hiawatha” by G. Longfellow). In the poems of N. A. Nekrasov (“Frost, Red Nose”, “Who Lives Well in Rus'”), genre tendencies characteristic of the development of the poem in realistic literature(synthesis of moral descriptive and heroic principles).

In a poem of the 20th century. the most intimate experiences are correlated with great historical upheavals, imbued with them as if from within (“Cloud in Pants” by V. V. Mayakovsky, “The Twelve (poem)” by A. A. Blok, “First Date” by A. Bely).

In Soviet poetry there are various genre varieties poems: reviving the heroic principle (“Vladimir Ilyich Lenin” and “Good!” by Mayakovsky, “Nine Hundred and Fifth” by B. L. Pasternak, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T. Tvardovsky); lyrical-psychological poems (“About this” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Anna Snegina” by S.A. Yesenin), philosophical (N.A. Zabolotsky, E. Mezhelaitis), historical (“Tobolsk Chronicler” by L. Martynov) or combining moral and socio-historical issues (“Mid-Century” by V. Lugovsky).

The poem as synthetic, lyroepic and monumental genre, which allows you to combine the epic of the heart and “music”, the “element” of world upheavals, intimate feelings and historical concepts, remains a productive genre of world poetry: “The Start of the Wall” and “Into the Storm” by R. Frost, “Landmarks” by Saint-John Perse, “ Hollow People" by T. Eliot, "The Universal Song" by P. Neruda, "Niobe" by K. I. Galczynski, "Continuous Poetry" by P. Eluard, "Zoe" by Nazim Hikmet.

Epic(ancient Greek έπος - “word”, “narration”) - a set of works mainly epic kind, united common theme, era, nationality, etc. For example, Homeric epic, medieval epic, animal epic.

The emergence of the epic is gradual in nature, but is conditioned by historical circumstances.

The birth of the epic is usually accompanied by the composition of panegyrics and laments, close to the heroic worldview. The great deeds immortalized in them often turn out to be the material that heroic poets base their narratives on. Panegyrics and laments are usually composed in the same style and meter as the heroic epic: in Russian and Turkic literature, both types have almost the same manner of expression and lexical composition. Lamentations and panegyrics are preserved as part of epic poems as decoration.

The epic claims not only objectivity, but also the truthfulness of its story, and its claims, as a rule, are accepted by listeners. In his Prologue to The Earthly Circle, Snorri Sturluson explained that among his sources were “ancient poems and songs that were sung for people’s amusement,” and added: “Although we ourselves do not know whether these stories are true, we know for sure that that the wise men of old believed them to be true.”

Novel - literary genre, as a rule, prosaic, which involves a detailed narrative about the life and development of the personality of the main character (heroes) during a crisis/non-standard period of his life.

The name “Roman” arose in the middle of the 12th century along with the genre of chivalric romance (Old French. romanz from late Latin dialect romanice"in the (vernacular) Romance language"), as opposed to historiography in Latin. Contrary to popular belief, from the very beginning this name did not refer to any work in the vernacular (heroic songs or troubadour lyrics were never called novels), but to one that could be contrasted with a Latin model, even if very distant: historiography, fable ( "The Romance of Renard"), vision ("The Romance of the Rose"). However, in XII-XIII centuries, if not later, words roman And estoire(the latter also means “image”, “illustration”) are interchangeable. In reverse translation into Latin, the novel was called (liber) romanticus, where in European languages ​​the adjective “romantic” came from, until the end of the 18th century it meant “inherent in novels”, “such as in novels”, and only later the meaning on the one hand was simplified to “love”, but on the other hand it gave rise to the name of romanticism as a literary movement.

The name “novel” was preserved even when, in the 13th century, the performed poetic novel was replaced by prose novel for reading (with full preservation of the knightly topic and plot), and for all subsequent transformations of the knightly romance, right up to the works of Ariosto and Edmund Spenser, which we call poems, and contemporaries considered novels. It is retained later, in XVII-XVIII centuries, when the “adventurous” novel is replaced by the “realistic” and “psychological” novel (which in itself problematizes the supposed gap in continuity).

However, in England the name of the genre is also changing: the “old” novels retain the name romance, and the name “new” novels from the middle of the 17th century was assigned novel(from Italian novella - “short story”). Dichotomy novel/romance means a lot for English-language criticism, but adds additional uncertainty to their actual historical relationships rather than clarifies them. Generally romance is considered rather a kind of structural-plot variety of the genre novel.

In Spain, on the contrary, all varieties of the novel are called novela, and what happened from the same romanice word romance from the very beginning belonged to the poetic genre, which was also destined Long story, - to romance.

Bishop Yue at the end of the 17th century, in search of the predecessors of the novel, first applied this term to a number of phenomena of ancient narrative prose, which have since also come to be called novels.

Visions

Fabliau dou dieu d'Amour"(The Tale of the God of Love), " Venus la déesse d'amors

Visions- narrative and didactic genre.

The plot is presented on behalf of the person to whom he allegedly revealed himself in a dream, hallucination or lethargic sleep. The core for the most part consists of actual dreams or hallucinations, but already in ancient times fictional stories appear, clothed in the form of visions (Plato, Plutarch, Cicero). The genre received special development in the Middle Ages and reached its apogee in " Divine Comedy"Dante, representing in form the most detailed vision. The authoritative sanction and the strongest impetus for the development of the genre were given by the “Dialogues of Miracles” of Pope Gregory the Great (VI century), after which visions began to appear en masse in church literature in all European countries.

Until the 12th century, all visions (except the Scandinavian ones) were written in Latin, from the 12th century translations appeared, and from the 13th century, original visions in vernacular languages. The most complete form of visions is presented in the Latin poetry of the clergy: this genre, in its origins, is closely related to canonical and apocryphal religious literature and is close to church sermons.

The editors of the visions (they are always from among the clergy and they must be distinguished from the “clairvoyant” himself) took advantage of the opportunity on behalf of “ higher power", who sent the vision, to propagate their Political Views or fall on personal enemies. Purely fictitious visions also appear - topical pamphlets (for example, the vision of Charlemagne, Charles III, etc.).

However, since the 10th century, the form and content of the visions have caused protest, often coming from the declassed layers of the clergy themselves (poor clergy and goliard scholars). This protest results in parodic visions. On the other hand, courtly knightly poetry in folk languages ​​takes over the form of visions: visions here acquire new content, becoming the frame of a love-didactic allegory, such as, for example, “ Fabliau dou dieu d'Amour"(The Tale of the God of Love), " Venus la déesse d'amors"(Venus is the goddess of love) and finally - the encyclopedia of courtly love - the famous "Roman de la Rose" (Romance of the Rose) by Guillaume de Lorris.

The “third estate” puts new content into the form of visions. Thus, the successor to the unfinished novel by Guillaume de Lorris, Jean de Meun, turns the exquisite allegory of his predecessor into a ponderous combination of didactics and satire, the edge of which is directed against the lack of “equality”, against the unfair privileges of the aristocracy and against the “robber” royal power). The same is true of Jean Molyneux’s “The Hopes of the Common People.” The sentiments of the “third estate” are no less clearly expressed in Langland’s famous “Vision of Peter the Plowman,” which played a propaganda role in the English peasant revolution of the 14th century. But unlike Jean de Meun, a representative of the urban part of the “third estate,” Langland, the ideologist of the peasantry, turns his gaze to the idealized past, dreaming of the destruction of capitalist usurers.

As a complete independent genre, visions are characteristic of medieval literature. But as a motif, the form of visions continues to exist in the literature of modern times, being especially favorable for the introduction of satire and didactics, on the one hand, and fantasy, on the other (for example, Byron’s “Darkness”).

Novella

The sources of the novella are primarily Latin example, as well as fabliaux, stories interspersed in the “Dialogue about Pope Gregory”, apologists from the “Lives of the Church Fathers”, fables, folk tales. In the 13th century Occitan language, the word appeared to denote a story created on some newly processed traditional material nova.Hence - Italian novella(in the most popular collection of the late 13th century, Novellino, also known as One Hundred Ancient Novels), which, starting in the 15th century, spread throughout Europe.

The genre became established after the book appeared. Giovanni Boccaccio“The Decameron” (c. 1353), the plot of which was that several people, fleeing the plague outside the city, tell each other short stories. Boccaccio in his book created the classic type of Italian short story, which was developed by his many followers in Italy itself and in other countries. In France, under the influence of the translation of the Decameron, a collection of One Hundred New Novels appeared around 1462 (however, the material owed more to the facets of Poggio Bracciolini), and Margarita Navarskaya, based on the Decameron, wrote the book Heptameron (1559).

In the era of romanticism, under the influence of Hoffmann, Novalis, Edgar Allan Poe, short stories with elements of mysticism, fantasy, and fabulousness spread. Later, in the works of Prosper Mérimée and Guy de Maupassant, this term began to be used to refer to realistic stories.

For American literature, starting with Washington Irving and Edgar Allan Poe, novella, or short story(English) short story), It has special meaning- as one of the most characteristic genres.

In the second half of the 19th-20th centuries, the traditions of the short story were continued by such diverse writers as Ambrose Bierce, O. Henry, H.G. Wells, Arthur Conan Doyle, Gilbert Chesterton, Ryunosuke Akutagawa, Karel Capek, Jorge Luis Borges.

The novella is characterized by several important features: extreme brevity, a sharp, even paradoxical plot, a neutral style of presentation, lack of psychologism and descriptiveness, and an unexpected denouement. The action of the novel takes place in the author's contemporary world. The plot structure of a novella is similar to a dramatic one, but usually simpler.

Goethe spoke about the action-packed nature of the novella, giving it the following definition: “an unheard-of event that has happened.”

The short story emphasizes the significance of the denouement, which contains an unexpected turn (pointe, “falcon turn”). According to the French researcher, “ultimately, one can even say that the entire novel is conceived as a denouement.” Viktor Shklovsky wrote that a description of happy mutual love does not create a novella; a novella requires love with obstacles: “A loves B, B does not love A; when B fell in love with A, then A no longer loves B.” He identified a special type of ending, which he called a “false ending”: usually it is made from a description of nature or weather.

Among Boccaccio's predecessors, the novella had a moralizing attitude. Boccaccio retained this motif, but for him the morality flowed from the story not logically, but psychologically, and was often only a pretext and device. The later novella convinces the reader of the relativity of moral criteria.

Tale

Story

Joke(fr. anecdote- fable, fable; from Greek τὸ ἀνέκδοτоν - unpublished, lit. “not issued”) - genre of folklore - short funny story. Most often, a joke has an unexpected semantic resolution at the very end, which gives rise to laughter. It could be a play on words different meanings words, modern associations that require additional knowledge: social, literary, historical, geographical, etc. Anecdotes cover almost all areas of human activity. There are jokes about family life, politics, sex, etc. In most cases, the authors of the jokes are unknown.

In Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. (and in most languages ​​of the world to this day) the word “anecdote” had a slightly different meaning - it could just be an entertaining story about some famous person, not necessarily with the goal of ridiculing him (cf. Pushkin: “Anecdotes of days gone by”). Such “anecdotes” about Potemkin became classics of that time.

Oh yeah

Epic

Play(French pièce) - a dramatic work, usually classic style, created for staging any action in the theater. This is a general specific name for works of drama intended for performance on stage.

The structure of the play includes the text of the characters (dialogues and monologues) and functional author's remarks (notes containing the designation of the location of the action, interior features, appearance of the characters, their manner of behavior, etc.). As a rule, the play is preceded by a list of characters, sometimes indicating their age, profession, titles, family ties, etc.

A separate, complete semantic part of a play is called an act or action, which may include smaller components - phenomena, episodes, pictures.

The very concept of a play is purely formal; it does not include any emotional or stylistic meaning. Therefore, in most cases, the play is accompanied by a subtitle that defines its genre - classic, main (comedy, tragedy, drama), or author's (for example: My poor Marat, dialogues in three parts - A. Arbuzov; We'll wait and see, a pleasant play in four acts - B.Shaw; a kind person from Szechwan, parabola play - B. Brecht, etc.). The genre designation of the play does not simply serve as a “hint” to the director and actors when stage interpretation plays, but helps to enter into the author's style, the figurative structure of drama.

Essay(from fr. essai“attempt, trial, sketch”, from Lat. exagium“weighing”) is a literary genre of prose composition of small volume and free composition. The essay expresses the author’s individual impressions and considerations on a specific occasion or subject and does not pretend to be an exhaustive or definitive interpretation of the topic (in the parodic Russian tradition of “a look and something”). In terms of volume and function, it borders, on the one hand, with a scientific article and a literary essay (with which an essay is often confused), and on the other, with a philosophical treatise. The essayistic style is characterized by imagery, fluidity of associations, aphoristic, often antithetical thinking, an emphasis on intimate frankness and conversational intonation. Some theorists consider it as the fourth, along with epic, lyric and drama, genre. fiction.

Michel Montaigne introduced it as a special genre form, based on the experience of his predecessors, in his “Essays” (1580). Francis Bacon published his works in book form in 1597, 1612 and 1625 for the first time English literature gave the name to English. essays. The English poet and playwright Ben Jonson first used the word essayist. essayist) in 1609.

IN XVIII-XIX centuries essay is one of the leading genres of English and French journalism. The development of essayism was promoted in England by J. Addison, Richard Steele, and Henry Fielding, in France by Diderot and Voltaire, and in Germany by Lessing and Herder. The essay was the main form of philosophical-aesthetic polemic among the romantics and romantic philosophers (G. Heine, R. W. Emerson, G. D. Thoreau)..

The essay genre is deeply rooted in English literature: T. Carlyle, W. Hazlitt, M. Arnold (19th century); M. Beerbohm, G. K. Chesterton (XX century). In the 20th century, essayism experienced its heyday: major philosophers, prose writers, and poets turned to the essay genre (R. Rolland, B. Shaw, G. Wells, J. Orwell, T. Mann, A. Maurois, J. P. Sartre).

In Lithuanian criticism, the term essay (lit. esė) was first used by Balis Sruoga in 1923. Characteristics The essays highlight the books “Smiles of God” (lit. “Dievo šypsenos”, 1929) by Juozapas Albinas Gerbachiauskas and “Gods and Smutkyalis” (lit. “Dievai ir smūtkeliai”, 1935) by Jonas Kossu-Alexandravičius. Examples of essays include “poetic anti-commentaries” “Lyrical Etudes” (lit. “Lyriniai etiudai”, 1964) and “Antakalnios Baroque” (lit. “Antakalnio barokas”, 1971) by Eduardas Meželaitis, “Diary without dates” (lit. “Dienoraštis be datų", 1981) by Justinas Marcinkevičius, "Poetry and the Word" (lit. "Poezija ir žodis", 1977) and Papyri from the graves of the dead (lit. "Papirusai iš mirusiųjų kapų", 1991) by Marcelius Martinaitis. An anti-conformist moral position, conceptuality, precision and polemic characterizes the essay by Tomas Venclova

The essay genre was not typical for Russian literature. Examples of the essayistic style are found in A. S. Pushkin (“Journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg”), A. I. Herzen (“From the Other Shore”), F. M. Dostoevsky (“A Writer’s Diary”). At the beginning of the 20th century, V. I. Ivanov, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Andrei Bely, Lev Shestov, V. V. Rozanov turned to the essay genre, and later - Ilya Erenburg, Yuri Olesha, Viktor Shklovsky, Konstantin Paustovsky. Literary critical assessments modern critics, as a rule, are embodied in a variation of the essay genre.

IN musical art The term piece is usually used as a specific name for works of instrumental music.

Sketch(English) sketch, literally - sketch, draft, sketch), in the 19th - early 20th centuries. a short play with two, rarely three characters. The sketch became most widespread on the stage.

In the UK, television sketch shows are very popular. Similar programs began to appear in Lately and on Russian television (“Our Russia”, “Six Frames”, “Give Youth!”, “Dear Program”, “Gentleman Show”, “Town”, etc.) A striking example The sketch show is the television series Monty Python's Flying Circus.

A famous creator of sketches was A.P. Chekhov.

Comedy(Greek κωliμωδία, from Greek κῶμος, kỗmos, “festival in honor of Dionysus” and Greek. ἀοιδή/Greek. ᾠδή, aoidḗ / ōidḗ, “song”) is a genre of fiction characterized by a humorous or satirical approach, as well as a type of drama in which the moment of effective conflict or struggle between antagonistic characters is specifically resolved.

Aristotle defined comedy as “the imitation of the worst people, but not in all their depravity, but in a funny way” (“Poetics”, Chapter V).

Types of comedy include genres such as farce, vaudeville, sideshow, sketch, operetta, and parody. Nowadays, examples of such primitiveness are many comedy films, built solely on external comedy, the comedy of situations in which the characters find themselves in the process of developing the action.

Distinguish sitcom And comedy of characters.

Sitcom (situation comedy, situational comedy) is a comedy in which the source of humor is events and circumstances.

Comedy of characters (comedy of manners) - a comedy in which the source of the funny is inner essence characters (morals), funny and ugly one-sidedness, exaggerated trait or passion (vice, flaw). Very often, a comedy of manners is a satirical comedy that makes fun of all these human qualities.

Tragedy(Greek τραγωδία, tragōdía, literally - goat song, from trаgos - goat and öde - song), a dramatic genre based on the development of events, which, as a rule, is inevitable and necessarily leads to a catastrophic outcome for the characters, often filled with pathos; a type of drama that is the opposite of comedy.

The tragedy is marked by stern seriousness, depicts reality in the most pointed way, as a clot of internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely intense and rich form that takes on meaning artistic symbol; It is no coincidence that most tragedies are written in verse.

Drama(Greek Δρα´μα) - one of the types of literature (along with lyric poetry, epic, and lyric epic). It differs from other types of literature in the way it conveys the plot - not through narration or monologue, but through character dialogues. Anything relates to drama in one way or another literary work, built in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc.

Since ancient times it has existed in folklore or literary form at various peoples; The ancient Greeks, ancient Indians, Chinese, Japanese, and American Indians created their own dramatic traditions independently of each other.

In Greek, the word "drama" depicts a sad, unpleasant event or situation of one specific person.

Fable- a poetic or prose literary work of a moralizing, satirical nature. At the end of the fable there is a short moralizing conclusion - the so-called morality. The characters are usually animals, plants, things. The fable ridicules the vices of people.

Fable is one of the oldest literary genres. IN Ancient Greece Aesop was famous (VI-V centuries BC), who wrote fables in prose. In Rome - Phaedrus (1st century AD). In India, the collection of fables "Panchatantra" refers to III century. The most prominent fabulist of modern times was the French poet J. Lafontaine (17th century).

In Russia, the development of the fable genre dates back to the mid-18th - early 19th centuries and is associated with the names of A.P. Sumarokov, I.I. Khemnitser, A.E. Izmailov, I.I. Dmitriev, although the first experiments in poetic fables were back in the 17th century with Simeon of Polotsk and in the 1st half. XVIII century by A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky. In Russian poetry, fable free verse is developed, conveying the intonations of a relaxed and crafty tale.

Fables by I. A. Krylov with their realistic liveliness, sensible humor and excellent language marked the heyday of this genre in Russia. IN Soviet time The fables of Demyan Bedny, S. Mikhalkov and others gained popularity.

There are two concepts of the origin of the fable. The first is represented by the German school of Otto Crusius, A. Hausrath and others, the second by the American scientist B. E. Perry. According to the first concept, in a fable the narrative is primary, and the moral is secondary; The fable comes from an animal tale, and the animal tale comes from a myth. According to the second concept, morality is primary in the fable; the fable is close to comparisons, proverbs and sayings; like them, the fable arises as an auxiliary means of argumentation. The first point of view goes back to the romantic theory of Jacob Grimm, the second revives the rationalistic concept of Lessing.

Philologists of the 19th century were long occupied with the debate about the priority of Greek or Indian fable. It can now be considered almost certain that the common source of the material of the Greek and Indian fables was the Sumerian-Babylonian fable.

Epics- Russian folk epic songs about the exploits of heroes. The basis of the plot of the epic is some heroic event, or a remarkable episode of Russian history (hence popular name epics - " old man", "old lady", implying that the action in question took place in the past).

Epics are usually written in tonic verse with two to four stresses.

The term “epics” was first introduced by Ivan Sakharov in the collection “Songs of the Russian People” in 1839; he proposed it based on the expression “according to epics” in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which meant “according to the facts.”

Ballad

Myth(ancient Greek μῦθος) in literature - a legend that conveys people’s ideas about the world, man’s place in it, the origin of all things, about gods and heroes; a certain idea of ​​the world.

The specificity of myths appears most clearly in primitive culture, where myths are the equivalent of science, an integral system in terms of which the whole world is perceived and described. Later, when such forms of social consciousness as art, literature, science, religion, political ideology, etc. are isolated from mythology, they retain a number of mythological models, which are peculiarly rethought when included in new structures; the myth is experiencing its second life. Of particular interest is their transformation in literary creativity.

Since mythology masters reality in the forms of figurative storytelling, it is close in essence to fiction; historically, it anticipated many of the possibilities of literature and influenced its early development all-round influence. Naturally, literature does not part with mythological foundations even later, which applies not only to works with mythological basis of the plot, but also to realistic and naturalistic everyday life writing of the 19th and 20th centuries (it is enough to name “Oliver Twist” by Charles Dickens, “Nana” by E. Zola, “The Magic Mountain” by T. Mann).

Novella(Italian novella - news) is a narrative prose genre characterized by brevity, a sharp plot, a neutral style of presentation, lack of psychologism, and an unexpected ending. Sometimes used as a synonym for story, sometimes called a type of story.

Tale- a prose genre of unstable volume (mostly intermediate between a novel and a story), gravitating towards a chronicle plot that reproduces the natural course of life. The plot, devoid of intrigue, is centered around the main character, whose identity and fate are revealed within a few events.

The story is an epic prose genre. The plot of the story tends more towards epic and chronicle plot and composition. Possible verse form. The story depicts a series of events. It is amorphous, events are often simply added to each other, and extra-plot elements play a large independent role. It does not have a complex, intense and complete plot point.

Story- a small form of epic prose, correlated with the story as a more developed form of storytelling. Goes back to folklore genres(fairy tale, parable); how the genre became isolated in written literature; often indistinguishable from a short story, and since the 18th century. - and an essay. Sometimes a short story and an essay are considered as polar varieties of a story.

A story is a work of small volume, containing a small number of characters, and also, most often, having one storyline.

Fairy tale: 1) a type of narrative, mostly prosaic folklore ( fairy tale prose), which includes works of different genres, the content of which, from the point of view of folklore bearers, lacks strict authenticity. Fairy-tale folklore is opposed to the “strictly reliable” folklore narrative ( non-fairy prose) (see myth, epic, historical song, spiritual poems, legend, demonological stories, tale, blasphemy, legend, epic).

2) genre of literary storytelling. A literary fairy tale either imitates a folklore one ( literary fairy tale written in folk poetic style), or creates a didactic work (see didactic literature) based on non-folklore stories. Folklore tale historically precedes literary.

Word " fairy tale"attested in written sources no earlier than the 16th century. From the word " say" What mattered was: a list, a list, an exact description. Modern meaning acquired from the 17th-19th centuries. Previously, the word fable was used, until the 11th century - blasphemy.

The word “fairy tale” suggests that people will learn about it, “what it is” and find out “what” it, a fairy tale, is needed for. The purpose of a fairy tale is to subconsciously or consciously teach a child in the family the rules and purpose of life, the need to protect one’s “area” and a worthy attitude towards other communities. It is noteworthy that both the saga and the fairy tale carry a colossal information component, passed on from generation to generation, the belief in which is based on respect for one’s ancestors.

There are different types fairy tales

Fantasy(from English fantasy- “fantasy”) - view fantastic literature, based on the use of mythological and fairy tale motifs. IN modern form formed at the beginning of the 20th century.

Fantasy works most often resemble a historical adventure novel, the action of which takes place in a fictional world close to the real Middle Ages, the heroes of which encounter supernatural phenomena and creatures. Often fantasy is built on archetypal plots.

Unlike science fiction, fantasy does not seek to explain the world in which the work takes place in scientific terms. This world itself exists in the form of a certain assumption (most often its location relative to our reality is not specified at all: either it is a parallel world, or another planet), and its physical laws may differ from the realities of our world. In such a world, the existence of gods, witchcraft, mythical creatures(dragons, gnomes, trolls), ghosts and any other fantastic entities. At the same time, the fundamental difference between the “miracles” of fantasy and their fairy-tale counterparts is that they are the norm of the described world and act systematically, like the laws of nature.

Nowadays, fantasy is also a genre in cinema, painting, computer and board games. Such genre versatility especially distinguishes Chinese fantasy with elements of martial arts.

Epic(from epic and Greek poieo - I create)

1. An extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events (“Iliad”, “Mahabharata”). The roots of the epic are in mythology and folklore. In the 19th century an epic novel arises (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy)
2. A complex, long history of something, including a number of major events.

Oh yeah- a poetic, as well as musical and poetic work, distinguished by solemnity and sublimity.

Initially, in Ancient Greece, any form of poetic lyric intended to accompany music was called an ode, including choral singing. Since the time of Pindar, an ode has been a choral epinikic song in honor of the winner in sports competitions of sacred games with a three-part composition and emphasized solemnity and pomp.

In Roman literature, the most famous are the odes of Horace, who used the dimensions of Aeolian lyric poetry, primarily the Alcaean stanza, adapting them to the Latin language; a collection of these works in Latin is called Carmina - songs; they were later called odes.

Since the Renaissance and in the Baroque era (XVI-XVII centuries), odes began to be called lyrical works in a pathetically high style, focusing on ancient examples, in classicism the ode became the canonical genre of high lyricism.

Elegy(Greek ελεγεια) - genre of lyric poetry; in early ancient poetry - a poem written in elegiac distich, regardless of content; later (Callimachus, Ovid) - a poem of sad content. In modern European poetry, elegy retains stable features: intimacy, motives of disappointment, unhappy love, loneliness, the frailty of earthly existence, determines rhetoric in the depiction of emotions; classical genre sentimentalism and romanticism (“Confession” by E. Baratynsky).

A poem with the character of thoughtful sadness. In this sense, we can say that most of Russian poetry is in an elegiac mood, at least up to the poetry of modern times. This, of course, does not deny that in Russian poetry there are excellent poems of a different, non-elegiac mood. Initially, in ancient Greek poetry, E. denoted a poem written in a stanza of a certain size, namely a couplet - hexameter-pentameter. Having general character lyrical reflection, E. among the ancient Greeks was very diverse in content, for example, sad and accusatory in Archilochus and Simonides, philosophical in Solon or Theognis, warlike in Callinus and Tyrtaeus, political in Mimnermus. One of the best Greek authors E. is Callimachus. Among the Romans, E. became more defined in character, but also freer in form. The importance of love stories has greatly increased. Famous Roman authors of romance include Propertius, Tibullus, Ovid, Catullus (they were translated by Fet, Batyushkov, and others). Subsequently, there was, perhaps, only one period in the development of European literature when the word E. began to mean poems with a more or less stable form. And it began under the influence of the famous elegy of the English poet Thomas Gray, written in 1750 and causing numerous imitations and translations in almost all European languages. The revolution brought about by this era is defined as the onset of a period of sentimentalism in literature, which replaced false classicism. In essence, this was the decline of poetry from rational mastery in once established forms to the true sources of internal artistic experiences. In Russian poetry, Zhukovsky's translation of Gray's elegy (Rural Cemetery; 1802) definitely marked the beginning of a new era, which finally went beyond rhetoric and turned to sincerity, intimacy and depth. This internal change was also reflected in the new methods of versification introduced by Zhukovsky, who is thus the founder of new Russian sentimental poetry and one of its great representatives. In the general spirit and form of Gray's elegy, i.e. in the form of large poems filled with mournful reflection, such poems by Zhukovsky were written, which he himself called elegies, such as “Evening”, “Slavyanka”, “On the death of Cor. Wirtembergskaya". His “Theon and Aeschylus” is also considered an elegy (more precisely, it is an elegy-ballad). Zhukovsky called his poem “The Sea” an elegy. In the first half of the 19th century. It was common to give your poems the title of elegies; Batyushkov, Boratynsky, Yazykov and others especially often called their works elegies; subsequently, however, it went out of fashion. Nevertheless, many poems by Russian poets are imbued with an elegiac tone. And in world poetry there is hardly an author who does not have elegiac poems. Goethe's Roman Elegies are famous in German poetry. Elegies are Schiller’s poems: “Ideals” (in Zhukovsky’s translation of “Dreams”), “Resignation”, “Walk”. Much of the elegies belong to Matisson (Batyushkov translated it “On the ruins of castles in Sweden”), Heine, Lenau, Herwegh, Platen, Freiligrath, Schlegel and many others. etc. The French wrote elegies: Millvois, Debord-Valmore, Kaz. Delavigne, A. Chenier (M. Chenier, the brother of the previous one, translated Gray's elegy), Lamartine, A. Musset, Hugo, etc. In English poetry, besides Gray, there are Spencer, Jung, Sidney, later Shelley and Byron. In Italy, the main representatives of elegiac poetry are Alamanni, Castaldi, Filicana, Guarini, Pindemonte. In Spain: Boscan Almogaver, Gars de le Vega. In Portugal - Camoes, Ferreira, Rodrigue Lobo, de Miranda.

Attempts to write elegies in Russia before Zhukovsky were made by such authors as Pavel Fonvizin, the author of “Darling” Bogdanovich, Ablesimov, Naryshkin, Nartov and others.

Epigram(Greek επίγραμμα “inscription”) - a small satirical poem ridiculing a person or social phenomenon.

Ballad- a lyric epic work, that is, a story presented in poetic form, historical, mythical or heroic character. The plot of a ballad is usually borrowed from folklore. Ballads are often set to music.

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Genres of literature

Literary genres- historically emerging groups of literary works, united by a set of formal and substantive properties (in contrast to literary forms, the identification of which is based only on formal characteristics). The term is often incorrectly identified with the term “type of literature.”

Kinds, types and genres of literature do not exist as something unchangeable, given from time to time and eternally existing. They are born, theoretically realized, historically develop, change, dominate, freeze or retreat to the periphery depending on the evolution of artistic thinking as such. The most stable and fundamental is, of course, the extremely general concept of “genus,” while the most dynamic and changeable is the much more specific concept of “genre.”

The first attempts to theoretically substantiate gender make themselves felt in the ancient doctrine of mimesis (imitation). Plato in the Republic, and then Aristotle in the Poetics, came to the conclusion that poetry is of three types, depending on what, how and by what means it imitates. In other words, the generic division of fiction is based on the subject, means and methods of imitation.

Separate remarks on the methods of organizing artistic time and space (chronotope), scattered throughout Poetics, constitute the prerequisites for further division into types and genres of literature.

Aristotle's idea of ​​generic characteristics is traditionally called formal. His successors are representatives of German aesthetics of the 18th-19th centuries. Goethe, Schiller, Aug. Schlegel, Schelling. Around the same time, the principles of the opposite - a substantive approach to the generic division of fiction - were laid down. Its initiator was Hegel, who proceeded from the epistemological principle: the object of artistic knowledge in the epic is the object, in the lyrics - the subject, in drama - their synthesis. Accordingly, the content of an epic work consists of being in its entirety, dominating the will of people, therefore the event plan predominates in it; the content of a lyrical work is the state of mind, the mood of the lyrical hero, therefore the eventfulness in it recedes into the background; the content of a dramatic work is aspiration towards a goal, the volitional activity of a person, manifested in action.

Derived from the category of genus, or rather, concepts that clarify and concretize it, are the concepts of “type” and “genre”. By tradition, we call stable structural formations within a literary genus, grouping even smaller genre modifications, by type. For example, an epic consists of small, medium and large types, such as a story, an essay, a short story, a story, a novel, a poem, an epic. However, they are often called genres, which in a strict terminological sense specify types either in a historical, or thematic, or structural aspect: an ancient novel, a Renaissance short story, a psychological or industrial essay or novel, a lyrical story, an epic story (“Fate person" by M. Sholokhov). Some structural forms combine specific and genre characteristics, i.e. types do not have genre varieties (such, for example, are the types and at the same time genres of the medieval theater soti and morality). However, along with synonymous word usage, the hierarchical differentiation of both terms is relevant. Accordingly, types are divided into genres according to a number of different characteristics: thematic, stylistic, structural, volume, in relation to the aesthetic ideal, reality or fiction, basic aesthetic categories, etc.

Genres of literature

Comedy- type of dramatic work. Displays everything ugly and absurd, funny and absurd, ridicules the vices of society.

Lyric poem (in prose)- a type of fiction that emotionally and poetically expresses the author’s feelings.

Melodrama- a type of drama whose characters are sharply divided into positive and negative.

Fantasy- a subgenre of fantastic literature. Works of this subgenre are written in an epic fairy-tale style, using motifs from ancient myths and legends. The plot is usually built around magic, heroic adventures and journeys; the plot usually involves magical creatures; The action takes place in a fairy-tale world reminiscent of the Middle Ages.

Feature article- the most reliable type of narrative, epic literature, reflecting facts from real life.

Song or chant- most ancient look lyric poetry; a poem consisting of several verses and a chorus. Songs are divided into folk, heroic, historical, lyrical, etc.

Tale- medium shape; a work that highlights a number of events in the life of the main character.

Poem- type of lyric epic work; poetic story telling.

Story- small form, a work about one event in the life of a character.

Novel- large shape; a work in the events of which many characters usually take part, whose destinies are intertwined. Novels can be philosophical, adventure, historical, family, social.

Tragedy- a type of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the main character, often doomed to death.

Utopia- a genre of fiction close to science fiction, describing a model of an ideal, from the author’s point of view, society. Unlike dystopia, it is characterized by the author’s faith in the impeccability of the model.

Epic- a work or a series of works depicting a significant historical era or a major historical event.

Drama– (in the narrow sense) one of the leading genres of drama; a literary work written in the form of a dialogue between characters. Intended for performance on stage. Focused on spectacular expressiveness. The relationships between people and the conflicts that arise between them are revealed through the actions of the heroes and are embodied in a monologue-dialogue form. Unlike tragedy, drama does not end in catharsis.