Characteristic features of classicism. Three periods of classicism in Russian literature. Concretization of artistic features

17.04.2019

Classicism as an art movement originated in France at the end of the 17th century. In his treatise " Poetic art“Boileau outlined the basic principles of this literary movement. He believed that literary work is created not by feelings, but by reason; Classicism in general is characterized by a cult of reason, caused by the conviction that only an enlightened monarchy, absolute power, can change life for the better. Just as in the state there must be a strict and clear hierarchy of all branches of power, so in literature (and in art) everything must be subordinated uniform rules, strict order.

In Latin, classicus means exemplary or first-class. The model for classic writers was ancient culture and literature. The French classics, having studied the poetics of Aristotle, determined the rules of their works, which they subsequently adhered to, and this became the basis for the formation of the main genres of classicism.

Classification of genres in classicism

Classicism is characterized by a strict division of literary genres into high and low.

Ode is a work glorifying and praising in poetic form;
Tragedy - dramatic work with a harsh ending;
A heroic epic is a narrative account of past events that shows the whole picture of time.

The heroes of such works could only be great people: kings, princes, generals, nobles who devote their lives to serving the fatherland. What comes first for them is not personal feelings, but civic duty.

Low genres:

Comedy is a dramatic work that ridicules the vices of society or a person;
Satire is a type of comedy distinguished by its harshness of storytelling;
Fable – satirical work instructive in nature.

The heroes of these works were not only representatives of the noble class, but also commoners and servants.

Each genre had its own rules of writing, its own style (the theory of three styles), mixing of high and low, tragic and comic was not allowed.

Students of the French classics, diligently adopting their standards, spread classicism throughout Europe. The most prominent foreign representatives are: Moliere, Voltaire, Milton, Corneille, etc.

Main features of classicism

Classical authors drew inspiration from the literature and art of ancient times, from the works of Horace and Aristotle, so the basis was imitation of nature.
The works were built on the principles of rationalism. Clarity, clarity and consistency are also characteristic features.
The construction of images is determined general features for time or era. Thus, each character is a thoughtful personification of a time period or segment of society.
A clear division of heroes into positive and negative. Each hero embodies one basic trait: nobility, wisdom or stinginess, meanness. Often the heroes have “speaking” surnames: Pravdin, Skotinin.
Strict adherence to the hierarchy of genres. Compliance of style with genre, avoiding mixing of different styles.
Compliance with the rule of the “three unities”: place, time and action. All events take place in one place. The unity of time means that all events fit into a period of no more than a day. And the action - the plot was limited to one line, one problem that was discussed.

Features of Russian classicism

A. D. Kantemir

Like European, Russian classicism adhered to the basic rules of direction. However, he did not become just a follower Western classicism– complemented by its national spirit of originality, Russian classicism became an independent movement in fiction with its own unique features and characteristics:

Satirical direction - such genres as comedy, fable and satire, telling about specific phenomena of Russian life (Kantemir’s satires, for example, “On those who blaspheme the teaching. To your mind”, Krylov’s fables);

Classicist authors, instead of antiquity, took as a basis national-historical images of Russia (the tragedies of Sumarokov “Dmitry the Pretender”, “Mstislav”, Knyazhnin’s “Rosslav”, “Vadim Novgorodsky”);
The presence of patriotic pathos in all works of this time;
High level development of the ode as a separate genre(odes of Lomonosov, Derzhavin).

The founder of Russian classicism is considered to be A.D. Kantemir with his famous satires, which had political overtones and more than once became the cause of heated debates.

V.K. Trediakovsky did not particularly distinguish himself in the artistry of his works, but he did a lot of work in the literary direction in general. He is the author of such concepts as “prose” and “poetry”. It was he who conditionally divided the works into two parts and was able to give them definitions and substantiate the system of syllabic-tonic versification.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered the founder of the dramaturgy of Russian classicism. He is considered the “father of Russian theater” and the creator of the national theatrical repertoire of that time.

One of the most prominent representatives of Russian classicism is M. V. Lomonosov. In addition to his enormous scientific contribution, Mikhail Vasilyevich carried out a reform of the Russian language and created the doctrine of the “three calms”.

D. I. Fonvizin is considered the creator of Russian domestic comedy. His works “The Brigadier” and “The Minor” have not yet lost their significance and are studied in the school curriculum.

G. R. Derzhavin is one of the last major representatives of Russian classicism. He was able to incorporate vernacular language into strict rules in his works, thereby expanding the scope of classicism. He is also considered the first Russian poet.

Main periods of Russian classicism

There are several divisions into periods of Russian classicism, but, generalizing, they can be reduced to the main three:

90 years of the 17th century – 20 years of the 18th century. Also called the Peter the Great era. During this period, there were no Russian works as such, but translated literature was actively developing. This is where Russian classicism originates as a consequence of reading translated works from Europe. (F. Prokopovich)
30-50 years of the 17th century - a bright surge of classicism. A clear genre formation is taking place, as well as reforms in the Russian language and versification. (V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov)
The 60-90s of the 18th century are also called the Catherine's era or the Age of Enlightenment. Classicism is the main one, but at the same time the emergence of sentimentalism was already observed. (D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzin).

Classicism

Classicism- one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, and unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as means to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, turning it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire to idealize reality, due to the refusal to depict a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction established itself in the works, first of all, of French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Moliere. Classicism had a great influence on Russian national theater(A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin, etc.).

Historical roots of classicism

The history of classicism begins in Western Europe from the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development associated with the blossoming absolute monarchy Louis XIV in France and the highest rise theatrical arts in the country. Classicism continued to exist fruitfully in the 18th and early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.

How art system classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the concept of classicism itself was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war was declared on it by romance. “Classicism” (from the Latin “classicus”, i.e. “exemplary”) presupposed a stable orientation of new art towards the ancient style, which did not mean simply copying ancient models. Classicism also maintains continuity with the aesthetic concepts of the Renaissance, which were oriented towards antiquity.

Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of Greek theater, the French classics proposed rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict adherence to the laws of the genre, division into higher genres - ode, tragedy, epic and lower ones - comedy, satire.

Laws of classicism

The laws of classicism are most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing tragedy. The author of the play was, first of all, required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of verisimilitude: not just the similarity of what is depicted on stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.

The concept of a reasonable predominance of duty over human feelings and passions is the basis of the aesthetics of classicism, which differs significantly from the concept of the hero adopted in the Renaissance, when complete personal freedom was proclaimed, and man was declared the “crown of the Universe.” However, the course of historical events refuted these ideas. Overwhelmed by passions, the person could not make up his mind or find support. And only in serving society, a single state, a monarch who embodied the strength and unity of his state, could a person express himself and establish himself, even at the cost of abandoning his own feelings. The tragic collision was born on a wave of colossal tension: hot passion collided with inexorable duty (unlike Greek tragedy fatal predestination, when the will of a person turned out to be powerless). In the tragedies of classicism, reason and will were decisive and suppressed spontaneous, poorly controlled feelings.

Hero in the tragedies of classicism

The classicists saw the truthfulness of the characters' characters in strict subordination to internal logic. The unity of character of the hero - the most important condition aesthetics of classicism. Generalizing the laws of this direction, the French author N. Boileau-Depreo, in his poetic treatise Poetic Art, states: Let your hero be carefully thought out, Let him always remain himself.

The one-sidedness and internal static character of the hero does not exclude, however, the manifestation of living human feelings on his part. But in different genres these feelings manifest themselves in different ways, strictly according to the chosen scale - tragic or comic. ABOUT tragic hero N. Boileau says:

A hero in whom everything is petty is only suitable for a novel,

Let him be brave, noble,

But still, without weaknesses, no one likes him...

He cries from insults - a useful detail,

So that we believe in its credibility...

So that we crown you with enthusiastic praise,

We should be moved and moved by your hero.

Let him be free from unworthy feelings

And even in weaknesses he is powerful and noble.

To reveal human character in the understanding of the classicists means to show the nature of the action of eternal passions, unchangeable in their essence, their influence on the destinies of people. Basic rules of classicism. Both high and low genres were obliged to instruct the public, elevate its morals, and enlighten its feelings. In tragedy, the theater taught the viewer perseverance in life’s struggle, example positive hero served as a model moral behavior. The hero, as a rule, a king or a mythological character, was the main actor. The conflict between duty and passion or selfish desires was always resolved in favor of duty, even if the hero died in an unequal struggle. In the 17th century The idea became dominant that only in serving the state does an individual gain the opportunity for self-affirmation. The flourishing of classicism was due to the establishment of absolute power in France, and later in Russia.

The most important standards of classicism - the unity of action, place and time - follow from those substantive premises discussed above. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire selfless feelings, the author should not have complicated anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of its integrity. The requirement for unity of time was closely linked to unity of action, and many different events did not occur in the tragedy. The unity of place has also been interpreted in different ways. This could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours. Particularly bold reformers decided to stretch the action for thirty hours. The tragedy must have five acts and be written in Alexandrian verse (iambic hexameter). The visible excites more than the story, But what the ear can tolerate, sometimes the eye cannot tolerate. (N. Boileau)

Characteristic features of classicism architecture

Spassky construction and brand cathedral in Nizhny Novgorod. Architect O. Montferrand.

Main laws architectural composition there was symmetry, emphasizing the center, general harmony of parts and the whole. The main entrance to the building was located in the center and was designed in the form of a portico (the part of the building protruding forward with columns and a pediment).

Architectural monuments of classicism are distinguished by:

Clarity and geometric correctness of volumes;

Clear and calm rhythm;

Balance, logical layout, correct proportions;

A combination of a smooth wall with an order and restrained decor; the use of elements of ancient architecture: porticos, colonnades, statues and reliefs on the surface of the walls;

Solemnity.

The norms of classicism were reduced to a strict system. All this together made it possible to fully and accurately master the style from drawings and texts of theoretical treatises. Classicism therefore easily spread to the provinces. There were few talented and skillful architects; they would not have been able to design all the buildings in many cities and country estates of the nobility. General character and the level of architectural solutions was maintained through the use of exemplary projects carried out by the greatest masters. They were engraved and sent to all cities of Russia.

Glossary of terms

Apse, apse- a protrusion of a building, semicircular, faceted or rectangular in plan, covered with a semi-dome or closed semi-vault. Apses appeared in ancient Roman basilicas. In Christian churches, the apse is an altar projection, usually oriented to the east.

Architrave(from Greek archi - senior and Latin trabs - beam), the lower of the three horizontal parts of the entablature, lying on the capitals of the columns; has the appearance of a beam - wide, smooth (in the Doric and Tuscan orders) or divided into three horizontal ledges - fascia (in the Ionic and Corinthian orders

Doric order, the oldest of the three main architectural orders. It received its name from the Doric tribes that created it. The Doric order column has no base, the trunk is cut with flutes; the capital consists of two stone slabs - echinus and abacus. The bottom plate is round and the top plate is square. The entablature is divided into an architrave, frieze and cornice. The Doric frieze consists of alternating plates: some have two vertical recesses, others usually have reliefs. The frieze is divided horizontally into triglyphs and metopes. The Doric column is heavy, thickened just below the middle. The upward direction of the column is emphasized by vertical grooves. Protruding cornices run along the edge of the roof: on both narrow sides of the temple, triangles are formed under the roof - pediments, which were decorated with sculptures. Today, parts of the temples are preserved in white: the paint that covered them has crumbled over time. Their friezes and cornices were once painted red and blue.

Caissons, cassettes, - square or polygonal recesses in the ceiling or inner surface arches, vault. They play a constructive and decorative role.

Console- a protrusion in the wall or a beam embedded at one end into the wall that supports a cornice, balcony, figure, vase, etc.

Corinthian order- one of the three main architectural orders. It has a high column with a base, a trunk cut with grooves (flutes), and a magnificent capital consisting of rows of acanthus leaves and small volutes.

Pilaster, pilaster- a flat vertical protrusion of rectangular cross-section on the surface of a wall or pillar. The pilaster has the same parts (trunk, capital, base) and proportions as the column; serves to divide the plane of the wall.

Rustica- facing the walls of a structure with stones with a rough or convex front surface (“rusts”) or relief masonry imitating it.

Refectory, 1) in monasteries there is a dining room with a church next to it; Russian refectory 16-17 centuries. - large halls with open terraces and staircases. 2) Western extension to the church.

Gable- in architecture, the crown of the facade of a building, most often having the shape of a triangle, bounded on the sides by two inclined cornices, and from below by the main cornice of the building. The narrow sides of ancient temples always ended at the top with a low f., the triangular field or tympanum of which was decorated with sculptural figures, and the side cornices carried the edges of the gable roof of the structure. In the last period of Roman art, fringes of a different form appeared, which later passed into the architecture of the Renaissance, namely those in which inclined cornices were replaced by one continuous arched cornice, so that a tympanum was formed in the form of a segment of a circle (circular f.). IN later time F.'s form became even more diverse: trapezoidal f. appeared, f. with side cornices that did not converge at the top and left between their upper ends (sometimes turning into volutes) free space for placing a pedestal for a vase, bust or some other decorations (interrupted F., fronton brise), F. in the form equilateral triangle etc. Such F. are installed primarily not above facades, but under windows, doors and porches.

Choirs (emporas)- upper open gallery, balcony inside the church, in the front hall.

Details Category: Variety of styles and movements in art and their features Published 03/05/2015 10:28 Views: 9974

"Class!" - we talk about what causes us admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin the word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismnamed the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture XVII-XIX centuries

What about as a sample? Classicism developed the canons according to which any piece of art. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set artistic techniques or rules mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict movement in art; it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical; accidental signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect K. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When is it possible to do this and nothing else? Don't rush to a negative conclusion! Canons made it possible to streamline creativity a certain type art, give direction, show examples and sweep aside everything insignificant and not deep.
But canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. V fine arts and in music: norms that had been rooted for several centuries had become obsolete and were torn apart.
However, we have already gotten ahead of ourselves. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of classicism genres. Let's just say that classicism as a specific movement was formed in France in the 17th century. The peculiarity of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of classicism genres

Classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Let's look at the hierarchy of genres using examples various types art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the largest theoretician of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherbe, who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”.

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy it was necessary to observe three unities: unity of time (the action must take place within one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (there must be one story line). The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the French tragedians Corneille and Racine. The main idea of their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument “1000th anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of the “three calms”.

“Theory of three calms” M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of three styles, i.e. the classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, distinguishing high, middle and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three “styles” according to Lomonosov:
1. Tall – solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Intermediate – elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly essays.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. We find this in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires by A.D. Kantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, ode M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavina.
At the end of the 18th century. the tendency to see in art main force human upbringing. In this regard, the literary movement sentimentalism emerged, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared to be the main thing in human nature. French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin – let’s remember his famous “Poor Liza”!
But works in the direction of classicism were also created in the 19th century. For example, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedova. Although this comedy already contains elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of “classicism” is translated as “exemplary,” then some kind of example is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. This was the highest example. There was also reliance on tradition high Renaissance, which also saw a pattern in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected conflicts between the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which indicate the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors. This is what N. Poussin wrote, for example.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin “Self-Portrait” (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings were created on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin “Dance to the Music of Time” (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. Circling in it (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the double-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of fast-flowing human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, and the old face looks to the past. The winged gray-bearded old man, to whose music the round dance spins, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby holding an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, goddess of the dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers along her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin", State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist captured in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a traditional ceremonial portrait for classicism. Derzhavin – senator, member Russian Academy, a statesman, his uniform and awards speak about it.
But at the same time, he is also a renowned poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But inner world it is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which were already actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classical painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, this is Karl Bryullov. His work occurred at a time when works that were classical in form were filled with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. IN mid-19th V. The younger generation, gravitating toward realism, began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was facilitated, among other things, by archaeological excavations ancient cities, as a result of which many Hellenistic sculptures became known.
Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova “Self-portrait” (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Paris Louvre and the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova “The Three Graces”. St. Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group “The Three Graces” belongs to the late period of Antonio Canova’s work. The sculptor embodied his ideas about beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying feminine beauty and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two outermost ones face each other (and not the viewer) and the friend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged in an embrace, they are united by an interlacing of arms and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are executed in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II -legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator; he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a master bone carver of Kholmogory carved bones.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which military valor and the wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition it was customary to depict models naked, but moral norms modern to classicism did not allow this. That's why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order– a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. Includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

London mansion Osterley Park. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.

Carl Bartalomeo-Rossi (1775-1849) – Russian architect Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its surroundings.
The outstanding architectural and urban planning skills of Russia are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with the adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff and triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the buildings of the Senate and Synod (1829-1834), Alexandrinskaya Square with buildings Alexandrinsky Theater(1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two homogeneous extended buildings of Teatralnaya Street (now Architect Rossi Street).

The General Staff Building on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous Portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. What was required of her was: balance of parts of the work, careful finishing of details, development of the basic canons of musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, and the classical composition of the sonata and symphony parts was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the 17th century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the work of I.S. can also be classified as classicism. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reform operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are still associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And « classical music» . The concept of “classical music” is much broader. It includes not only the music of the classical era, but also the music of the past in general, which has stood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic and architectural style, a movement in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism went through three stages in its development:

* Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s)
* Strict classicism (mid 1780s - 1790s)
* Empire style (from the French empire - “empire”)
Empire - the style of late (high) classicism in architecture and applied arts. Originated in France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I; developed during the first three decades XIX century; replaced by eclectic movements.

Although such a phenomenon in European culture as classicism affected all manifestations of art (painting, literature, poetry, sculpture, theater), in this article we will look at classicism in architecture and interior.

The history of classicism

Classicism in architecture replaced the pompous Rococo, a style which, since the mid-18th century, had already been widely criticized for being overly complicated, pompous, mannered, and for complicating the composition with decorative elements. During this period, ideas of enlightenment began to attract more and more attention in European society, which was reflected in architecture. Thus, the attention of the architects of that time was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor of ancient and, above all, Greek architecture. The growing interest in antiquity was facilitated by the discovery in 1755 of Pompeii with its rich artistic monuments, excavations in Herculaneum, and the study of ancient architecture in southern Italy, on the basis of which new views on Roman and Greek architecture were formed. A new style- classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

Famous architectural structures of classicism:

David Mayernik
Exterior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
Robert Adam
An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park " target="_blank"> Osterley Park Osterley Park
Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
Customs checkpoint on Stalingrad Square in Paris " target="_blank"> Customs outpost Customs outpost
Andrea Palladio
Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza" target="_blank"> Villa Rotunda Villa Rotunda

Main features of classicism

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular planning system.

Predominant and fashionable colors	White, rich colors; green, pink, purple with gold accent, sky blue
Classicism style lines	Strict repeating vertical and horizontal lines; bas-relief in a round medallion, smooth generalized pattern, symmetry
Form	Clarity and geometricism of forms, statues on the roof, rotunda, for the Empire style - expressive pompous monumental forms
Characteristic elements of classicism interior	Restrained decor, round and ribbed columns, pilasters, statues, antique ornaments, coffered vaults, for the Empire style, military decor (emblems), symbols of power
Constructions	Massive, stable, monumental, rectangular, arched
Classicism windows	Rectangular, elongated upward, with a modest design
Classic style doors	Rectangular, paneled; with a massive gable portal on round and ribbed columns; possibly decorated with lions, sphinxes and statues

Architects of Classicism

Andrea Palladio (Italian: Andrea Palladio; 1508-1580, real name Andrea di Pietro) - the great Italian architect of the late Renaissance. The founder of Palladianism and classicism. Probably one of the most influential architects in history.

Inigo Jones (1573-1652) was an English architect, designer and artist who pioneered the British architectural tradition.

Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806) was a master of French classicism architecture who anticipated many of the principles of modernism. Blondel's student.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to fully demonstrate their talent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi, Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot, and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs.

In Britain, the Empire style corresponds to the so-called “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin with grand museums and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

Types of classicism style buildings

The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel colors. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.

Classicism in the interior

Furniture from the Classical era was solid and respectable, made from valuable wood. The texture of wood becomes of great importance, acting as a decorative element in the interior. Furniture items were often decorated with carved inserts made of valuable wood. Decorative elements are more restrained, but expensive. The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines are straightened. The legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.

The colors of this style often have crisp, almost primal yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray as well as bronze and silver embellishments. White color is popular. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.

David Mayernik
Interior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
Elizabeth M. Dowling
Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Modern classic Modern classic
Classicism
Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Hall Hall
Classicism
Modern interior design of a dining room in a classic style " target="_blank"> Dining room Dining room

Literary movement - often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. In the struggle and change of directions, patterns are most clearly expressed literary process. It is customary to distinguish the following literary trends:
a) Classicism,
b) Sentimentalism,
c) Naturalism,
d) Romanticism,
d) Symbolism,
f) Realism.
Literary movement - often identified with a literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative personalities, which are characterized by ideological and artistic closeness and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, literary movement- this is a variety (as if a subclass) of a literary movement. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism they talk about “philosophical”, “psychological” and “civil” movements. In Russian realism, some distinguish “psychological” and “sociological” trends.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the 17th-beginning. XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin “classicus” - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

Appeal to images and forms ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, putting forward on this basis the principle of “imitation of nature,” which implies strict adherence to immutable rules drawn from ancient aesthetics (for example, in the person of Aristotle, Horace).
Aesthetics is based on the principles of rationalism (from the Latin “ratio” - reason), which affirms the view of a work of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, intelligently organized, logically constructed.
The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable, generic, enduring characteristics over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
The social and educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is public life, historical events, mythology, their heroes - monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious ascetics) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable that depicted private daily life people of the middle classes). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary was allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of “unity of place, time and action,” which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited to the duration of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time about which the play should have been narrated is one day), the unity of action implied that the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions.

Classicism originated and developed in France with the establishment of absolutism (classicism with its concepts of “exemplaryness”, a strict hierarchy of genres, etc. is generally often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc. Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, classicism was revived during the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier, etc. After the Great french revolution with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism declines, the dominant style European art becomes romanticism.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian classicism arose in the second quarter of the 18th century in the works of the founders of new Russian literature - A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West and joined the pan-European literary development while preserving its national identity. Characteristics Russian classicism:

A) Satirical orientation - an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, directly addressed to specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national historical themes over ancient ones (the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, etc.);
V) High level of development of the ode genre (M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
G) The general patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

At the end of the XVIII - beginning. In the 19th century, Russian classicism was influenced by sentimentalist and pre-romantic ideas, which is reflected in the poetry of G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov and the civil lyrics of the Decembrist poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - “sensitive”) is a movement in European literature and art XVIII century. It was prepared by the crisis of Enlightenment rationalism and was the final stage of the Enlightenment. Chronologically, it mainly preceded romanticism, passing on a number of its features to it.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

Sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of the normative personality.
In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, it declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant of “human nature.”
The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not by the “reasonable reorganization of the world,” but by the release and improvement of “natural feelings.”
The hero of sentimental literature is more individualized: by origin (or convictions) he is a democrat, rich spiritual world the commoner is one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
However, unlike romanticism (pre-romanticism), the “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods and the impulsiveness of mental impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Sentimentalism took its most complete expression in England, where the ideology of the third estate was formed first - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabb, S. Richardson, JI. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin (most famous work - “ Poor Lisa"), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, young V. A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalistic tendencies are quite clearly expressed;
b) The didactic (moralizing) attitude is strong;
c) Educational trends;
d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms and introduced colloquialisms.

The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose in which confessional motifs predominate.

Romanticism

One of the largest destinations in European and American literature the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century, which gained worldwide significance and distribution. In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books and not in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. “Romanticism” begins to be called a new literary movement.

Main features of romanticism:

Anti-Enlightenment orientation (i.e., against the ideology of the Enlightenment), which manifested itself in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, and reached its peak in romanticism highest point. Social and ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaicness of bourgeois life. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of “reason,” irrational, full of secrets and unforeseen events, and the modern world order turned out to be hostile to human nature and his personal freedom.
The general pessimistic orientation is the ideas of “cosmic pessimism”, “world sorrow” (heroes in the works of F. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, etc.). Theme "lying in evil" scary world“was especially clearly reflected in the “drama of rock” or “tragedy of rock” (G. Kleist, J. Byron, E. T. A. Hoffman, E. Poe).
Belief in the omnipotence of the human spirit, in its ability to renew itself. The Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. For them, a person is a microcosm, a small universe. Hence the absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. In the center romantic work There is always a strong, exceptional personality opposing society, its laws or moral standards.
“Dual world”, that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual insight, inspiration, which is subject to the romantic hero, is nothing more than penetration into this ideal world (for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially vividly in: “The Golden Pot”, “The Nutcracker”, “Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober”) . The romantics contrasted the classicist “imitation of nature” with the creative activity of the artist with his right to transformation real world: the artist creates his own, special world, more beautiful and true.
"Local color" A person who opposes society feels a spiritual closeness with nature, its elements. This is why romantics so often use exotic countries and their nature (the East) as the setting for action. Exotic wild nature was quite consistent in spirit with the romantic personality striving beyond the boundaries of everyday life. Romantics were the first to pay close attention to the creative heritage of the people, their national, cultural and historical characteristics. National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of the romantics, was part of one large unified whole - the “universum”. This was clearly realized in the development of the historical novel genre (authors such as W. Scott, F. Cooper, V. Hugo).

The Romantics, absolutizing the creative freedom of the artist, denied rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own, romantic canons.

Genres developed: fantastic story, historical novel, a lyric-epic poem, the lyricist reaches extraordinary flowering.

The classical countries of romanticism are Germany, England, France.

Beginning in the 1840s, Romanticism lost its leading position in major European countries. critical realism and fades into the background.

Romanticism in Russia:

The origin of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - the nationwide upsurge after the War of 1812. All this determined not only the formation, but also the special character of the romanticism of the Decembrist poets (for example, K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker, A. I. Odoevsky), whose work was inspired by the idea of civil service, imbued with the pathos of love of freedom and struggle.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

A) The acceleration of the development of literature in Russia in early XIX centuries led to the “running” and combination various stages, which in other countries were experienced in stages. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies were intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholy were combined with the classic ordering of styles and genres, moderate didacticism (edification) and the fight against excessive metaphor for the sake of “harmonic accuracy” (expression A. S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres as elegy and idyll receive special development. The development of the ballad (for example, in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky) was very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism. The contours of Russian romanticism were most clearly defined with the emergence of the genre of lyric-epic poem (southern poems by A. S. Pushkin, works by I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontov, etc.). The historical novel is developing as a large epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). A special way of creating a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the combination of seemingly independent (and partially published separately) works (“Double or My Evenings in Little Russia” by A. Pogorelsky, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. V. Gogol, “Our Hero” time" by M. Yu. Lermontov, "Russian Nights" by V. F. Odoevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from the Latin natura - “nature”) is a literary movement that developed in the last thirds of the XIX century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristics of naturalism:

The desire for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character, determined by physiological nature and environment, understood primarily as the immediate everyday and material environment, but not excluding socio-historical factors. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a natural scientist studies nature, artistic knowledge was likened to science.
A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the cognitive act carried out in it.
Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself quite expressive. They believed that literature, like science, has no right in choosing material, that there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Naturalism received particular development in France - for example, naturalism includes the work of such writers as G. Flaubert, the brothers E. and J. Goncourt, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism).

In Russia, naturalism was not widespread; it played only a certain role in initial stage development of Russian realism. Naturalistic tendencies can be traced among writers of the so-called “ natural school"(see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panaev and others.

Realism

Realism (from the late Latin realis - material, real) is a literary and artistic movement of the 19th-20th centuries. It originates in the Renaissance (the so-called “Renaissance realism”) or in the Enlightenment (“ educational realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore and ancient literature.

Main features of realism:

The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
Literature in realism is a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him.
Knowledge of reality occurs with the help of images created through typification of facts of reality (“typical characters in a typical setting”). Typification of characters in realism is carried out through the “truthfulness of details” in the “specifics” of the characters’ conditions of existence.
Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution to the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is Gnosticism, the belief in knowability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, in contrast, for example, to romanticism.
Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary movement was formed in the 30s of the 19th century. The immediate predecessor of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made the unusual the subject of the image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spirituality, emotionally, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other movements of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the fight against idealization public relations, for the national-historical originality of artistic images (color of place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism of the first half of the 19th century; in the works of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged - for example, the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, and partly Charles Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (the southern poems of Pushkin and “Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were already in the 1820-30s. laid down by the work of A. S. Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “ Captain's daughter”, late lyrics), as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov, fables by I. A. Krylov), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. Realism of the 19th century is usually called “critical”, since the defining principle in it was precisely the social-critical one. Heightened social-critical pathos is one of the main distinctive features Russian realism - for example, “The Inspector General”, “ Dead Souls"N.V. Gogol, the activities of writers of the “natural school.” Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky, who became late XIX century as the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deep layers.