Realism is a movement in literature and art that truthfully and realistically depicts typical features reality, in which there are no various distortions and exaggerations. This direction followed romanticism, and was the predecessor of symbolism.
This trend originated in the 30s of the 19th century and reached its peak in the middle of it. His followers sharply denied the use of any sophisticated techniques, mystical trends or idealization of characters in literary works. Main feature this direction in literature - artistic display real life with the help of ordinary and familiar images to readers, which for them are part of their everyday life(relatives, neighbors or acquaintances).
(Alexey Yakovlevich Voloskov "At the tea table")
The works of realist writers are distinguished by a life-affirming beginning, even if their plot is characterized by a tragic conflict. One of the main features of this genre is the authors’ attempt to consider the surrounding reality in its development, to discover and describe new psychological, public and social relations.
Having replaced romanticism, realism has the characteristic features of an art that strives to find truth and justice, wants to change the world in better side. The main characters in the works of realist authors make their discoveries and conclusions after much thought and deep introspection.
(Zhuravlev Firs Sergeevich "Before the Crown")
Critical realism developed almost simultaneously in Russia and Europe (approximately 30-40s of the 19th century) and soon emerged as the leading trend in literature and art throughout the world.
In France, literary realism is primarily associated with the names of Balzac and Stendhal, in Russia with Pushkin and Gogol, in Germany with the names of Heine and Buchner. They all experience in their literary creativity the inevitable influence of romanticism, but gradually move away from it, abandon the idealization of reality and move on to depicting a broader social background, where the life of the main characters takes place.
Realism in Russian literature of the 19th century
The main founder of Russian realism in the 19th century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. In his works " Captain's daughter", "Eugene Onegin", "Belkin's Tales", "Boris Godunov", " Bronze Horseman“He subtly captures and skillfully conveys the very essence of all important events in the life of Russian society, presented by his talented pen in all its diversity, colorfulness and inconsistency. Following Pushkin, many writers of that time came to the genre of realism, deepening the analysis of the emotional experiences of their heroes and depicting their complex inner world (“Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov, “The Inspector General” and “ Dead Souls"Gogol).
(Pavel Fedotov "The Picky Bride")
The tense socio-political situation in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I aroused keen interest in the life and fate of common people among progressive public figures of that time. This is noted in later works Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, as well as in the poetic lines of Alexei Koltsov and the works of the authors of the so-called “ natural school": I.S. Turgenev (cycle of stories “Notes of a Hunter”, stories “Fathers and Sons”, “Rudin”, “Asya”), F.M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”), A.I. Herzen (“The Thieving Magpie”, “Who is to Blame?”), I.A. Goncharova (“ An ordinary story", "Oblomov"), A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, L.N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”), A.P. Chekhov (stories and plays “ Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya").
Literary realism of the second half of the 19th century was called critical; the main task of his works was to highlight existing problems and address issues of interaction between man and the society in which he lives.
Realism in Russian literature of the 20th century
(Nikolai Petrovich Bogdanov-Belsky "Evening")
The turning point in the fate of Russian realism was the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when this direction was experiencing a crisis and a new phenomenon in culture loudly declared itself - symbolism. Then a new updated aesthetics of Russian realism arose, in which History itself and its global processes were now considered the main environment shaping a person’s personality. The realism of the early 20th century revealed the complexity of the formation of a person’s personality; it was formed under the influence not only social factors, the story itself acted as the creator of typical circumstances, under the aggressive influence of which the main character fell.
(Boris Kustodiev "Portrait of D.F. Bogoslovsky")
There are four main trends in realism of the early twentieth century:
- Critical: continues the traditions of classical realism of the mid-19th century. The works place emphasis on the social nature of phenomena (the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy);
- Socialist: displaying the historical and revolutionary development of real life, analyzing conflicts in conditions of class struggle, revealing the essence of the characters of the main characters and their actions committed for the benefit of others. (M. Gorky “Mother”, “The Life of Klim Samgin”, most works by Soviet authors).
- Mythological: display and re-interpretation of real life events through the prism of plots of famous myths and legends (L.N. Andreev “Judas Iscariot”);
- Naturalism: an extremely truthful, often unsightly, detailed depiction of reality (A.I. Kuprin “The Pit”, V.V. Veresaev “A Doctor’s Notes”).
Realism in foreign literature of the 19th-20th centuries
The initial stage of the formation of critical realism in European countries in the mid-19th century is associated with the works of Balzac, Stendhal, Beranger, Flaubert, and Maupassant. Mérimée in France, Dickens, Thackeray, Bronte, Gaskell - England, the poetry of Heine and other revolutionary poets - Germany. In these countries, in the 30s of the 19th century, tension was growing between two irreconcilable class enemies: the bourgeoisie and the labor movement, a period of growth was observed in various spheres of bourgeois culture, and a number of discoveries were taking place in natural science and biology. In countries where a pre-revolutionary situation developed (France, Germany, Hungary), the doctrine of the scientific socialism of Marx and Engels arose and developed.
(Julien Dupre "Return from the Fields")
As a result of complex creative and theoretical polemics with the followers of romanticism, critical realists took for themselves the best progressive ideas and traditions: interesting historical topics, democracy, trends folklore, progressive critical pathos and humanistic ideals.
Realism of the early twentieth century, which survived the struggle of the best representatives of the “classics” of critical realism (Flaubert, Maupassant, France, Shaw, Rolland) with the trends of new non-realistic trends in literature and art (decadence, impressionism, naturalism, aestheticism, etc.) is acquiring new characteristic features. He turns to social phenomena real life, describes the social motivation of human character, reveals the psychology of personality, the fate of art. The basis of modeling artistic reality philosophical ideas are laid down, the author's focus is primarily on the intellectually active perception of the work when reading it, and then on the emotional one. Classic example intellectual realistic novel are the works of the German writer Thomas Mann “The Magic Mountain” and “Confession of the Adventurer Felix Krull”, the dramaturgy of Bertolt Brecht.
(Robert Kohler "Strike")
In the works of realist authors of the twentieth century, the dramatic line intensifies and deepens, there is more tragedy (creativity American writer Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby", "Tender is the Night"), a special interest in the inner world of man appears. Attempts to depict the conscious and unconscious moments of a person’s life lead to the emergence of a new literary device, close to modernism called “stream of consciousness” (works by Anna Segers, W. Keppen, Yu. O’Neill). Naturalistic elements appear in the work of American realist writers such as Theodore Dreiser and John Steinbeck.
Realism of the 20th century has a bright, life-affirming color, faith in man and his strength, this is noticeable in the works of American realist writers William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Jack London, Mark Twain. The works of Romain Rolland, John Galsworthy, Bernard Shaw, and Erich Maria Remarque were very popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Realism continues to exist as a direction in modern literature and is one of the most important forms of democratic culture.
What is realism in literature? It is one of the most common directions, reflecting realistic image reality. The main task of this direction is reliable disclosure of phenomena encountered in life, using a detailed description of the characters depicted and the situations that happen to them, through typification. What is important is the lack of embellishment.
Among other directions, only in realistic special attention given to the right artistic depiction life, and not an emerging reaction to certain life events, for example, as in romanticism and classicism. The heroes of realist writers appear before readers exactly as they were presented to the author's gaze, and not as the writer would like to see them.
Realism, as one of the widespread trends in literature, settled closer to the middle of the 19th century after its predecessor - romanticism. The 19th century is subsequently designated as the era of realistic works, but romanticism did not cease to exist, it only slowed down in development, gradually turning into neo-romanticism.
Important! The definition of this term was first introduced into literary criticism by D.I. Pisarev.
The main features of this direction are as follows:
- Full compliance with the reality depicted in any work of the painting.
- True specific typification of all the details in the images of the heroes.
- The basis is a conflict situation between a person and society.
- Image in the work deep conflict situations, the drama of life.
- The author paid special attention to the description of all phenomena environment.
- A significant feature of this literary movement is considered to be the writer’s significant attention to the inner world of a person, his state of mind.
Main genres
In any direction of literature, including realistic, a certain system of genres develops. Its development was particularly influenced by prose genres realism, due to the fact that more than others were suitable for more correct artistic description new realities, their reflection in literature. Works of this direction are divided into the following genres.
- A social and everyday novel that describes a way of life and a certain type of character inherent in this way of life. A good example“Anna Karenina” became a social and everyday genre.
- A socio-psychological novel, in the description of which you can see a full detailed disclosure human personality, his personality and inner world.
- A realistic novel in verse is a special type of novel. A remarkable example of this genre is “”, written by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
- A realistic philosophical novel contains eternal reflections on such topics as: the meaning of human existence, confrontation between good and evil sides, a certain purpose human life. An example of a realistic philosophical novel is “”, the author of which is Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov.
- Story.
- Tale.
In Russia, its development began in the 1830s and was a consequence of the conflict situation in various spheres of society, the contradictions between higher ranks and ordinary people. Writers began to turn to current problems of its time.
Thus begins the rapid development of a new genre - the realistic novel, which, as a rule, described the hard life of ordinary people, their hardships and problems.
The initial stage in the development of the realistic trend in Russian literature is the “natural school”. During the “natural school” period literary works V to a greater extent they sought to describe the hero’s position in society, his belonging to some kind of profession. Among all genres leading place occupied physiological essay.
In the 1850s–1900s, realism began to be called critical, since the main goal was to criticize what was happening, the relationship between a certain person and spheres of society. Issues such as: the measure of the influence of society on the life of an individual were considered; actions that can change a person and the world around him; the reason for the lack of happiness in human life.
Given literary direction has become extremely popular in Russian literature, since Russian writers were able to make a world genre system richer. Works appeared from in-depth questions of philosophy and morality.
I.S. Turgenev created an ideological type of heroes, the character, personality and internal state of which directly depended on the author’s assessment of the worldview, finding certain meaning in the concepts of their philosophy. Such heroes are subject to ideas that they follow until the very end, developing them as much as possible.
In the works of L.N. Tolstoy, the system of ideas that develops during the character’s life determines the form of his interaction with surrounding reality, depends on the morality and personal characteristics of the heroes of the work.
Founder of realism
The title of pioneer of this trend in Russian literature was rightfully awarded to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. He is the generally recognized founder of realism in Russia. "Boris Godunov" and "Eugene Onegin" are considered a shining example realism in Russian literature of those times. Also distinguishing examples were such works by Alexander Sergeevich as “Belkin’s Tales” and “The Captain’s Daughter”.
IN creative works Pushkin gradually begins to develop classical realism. The writer’s portrayal of the personality of each character is comprehensive in an effort to describe the complexity of his inner world and state of mind, which unfold very harmoniously. Recreating the experiences of a certain person, his moral character helps Pushkin overcome the self-will of describing passions inherent in irrationalism.
Heroes A.S. Pushkin appear before readers with open sides of their being. The writer pays special attention to describing the aspects of the human inner world, depicts the hero in the process of development and formation of his personality, which are influenced by the reality of society and the environment. This was due to his awareness of the need to depict a specific historical and national identity in the characteristics of the people.
Attention! Reality in Pushkin’s depiction collects an accurate, concrete image of the details of not only the inner world of a certain character, but also the world that surrounds him, including his detailed generalization.
Neorealism in literature
New philosophical, aesthetic and everyday realities at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries contributed to a change in direction. Implemented twice, this modification acquired the name neorealism, which gained popularity during the 20th century.
Neorealism in literature consists of a variety of movements, since its representatives had different artistic approach to the depiction of reality, including the characteristic features of the realistic direction. It is based on appeal to the traditions of classical realism XIX century, as well as to problems in the social, moral, philosophical and aesthetic spheres of reality. A good example containing all these features is the work of G.N. Vladimov “The General and His Army”, written in 1994.
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No. PERIOD EVENTS AND CHANGES IN LITERATURE 1. LATE 1790s - 1800s Karamzin period. Journal "Bulletin of Europe" Karamzin. The emergence of numerous literary societies. Development of Karamzinist poetry (“poetic nonsense”, “nonsense”, familiar friendly poetry, elegant salon poetry, etc.) 2. 1810-egg Formation of romanticism. "Bulletin of Europe" edited by V.A. Zhukovsky. Dispute about the ballad genre, nationality, literary language. “Psychological romanticism” by V.A. Zhukovsky, “dreamy romanticism” by K.N. Batyushkova. 3. 1820 -1830s Pushkin period. The evolution of romanticism in the works of Pushkin. “Civil romanticism” of the Decembrists. A.S. Griboyedov. Poets of the Pushkin circle. M.Yu. Lermontov. N.V. Gogol.
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So, writer...Russian writer - who is he?? (write the answer in your notebook) First professional writer was A.S. Pushkin. In the mid-19th century, every great poet clarifies his attitude to the Pushkin tradition, because It was impossible to appear in print without clarifying for oneself and for others, out loud or in a hint, one’s attitude towards Pushkin’s traditions. WHY? Look at the notes in your notebook...
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POETRY I third 19 in PROSE II half 19 in Gives way to WHY? WHY?? Poetry reacts faster to changes occurring in society (in practical terms, poetry is written faster); writing a novel sometimes takes more than 10 years
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In 1848, Nicholas I tightened censorship even more; until 1855, a gloomy 7th anniversary began. Under Nicholas I, it was forbidden to open new magazines. The magazines consisted of several departments: Literature Actually work of art Criticism Bibliographical chronicle Modern chronicle of Russia Literature had no right to engage in politics. The magazines argued with each other. This is a time of democratization of literature, more and more literate people are appearing, these new readers are dictating their tastes. They listen to these tastes and adapt to them. Who should I write for? Who can you count on? Almost all writers, starting with Pushkin, have faced this problem. The democratization of literature meant the emergence of new readers and the influx of new literary forces into literature.
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Realism as a literary movement Realism as artistic method, and the novel, as a genre, arose from the need to understand the complex processes that took place in Russia and the West at the end of the 18th century - the first quarter of the 19th century. Literature has taken the path of a comprehensive study of life. As a result of the interaction of all literary trends, under the influence of the political situation in literature, an artistic method - realism - begins to take shape. Its basis is the principle of life truth, the desire to fully and truly reflect life. A.S. Pushkin is considered the founder of this direction. It was based on patriotism, sympathy for the people, the search for a positive hero in life, and faith in the bright future of Russia. Russian realism of the second half of the 19th century turns to philosophical questions, poses eternal problems human existence.
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1800 1850 1870s 1825s Social status Education Financial situation Development of natural sciences 1900s
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The main features of realism Realism has a certain set of features that show differences from the romanticism that preceded it, and from the naturalism that follows it. 1. Typification of images. The object of a work in realism is always an ordinary person with all his advantages and disadvantages. Accuracy in depicting details characteristic of a person, here key rule realism. However, the authors do not forget about such nuances as individual characteristics, and they are harmoniously woven into the whole image. This distinguishes realism from romanticism, where the character is individual. 2. Typification of the situation. The situation in which the hero of the work finds himself must be characteristic of the time being described. A unique situation is more characteristic of naturalism. 3. Precision in the image. Realists have always described the world as it was, reducing the author's worldview to a minimum. The romantics acted completely differently. The world in their works was demonstrated through the prism of their own worldview. 4. Determinism. The situation in which the heroes of the works of realists find themselves is only the result of actions committed in the past. The characters are shown in development, which is shaped by the world around them. Interpersonal relationships play a key role in this. The personality of the character and his actions are influenced by many factors: social, religious, moral and others. Often in a work there is a development and change in personality under the influence of social and everyday factors. 5. Conflict: hero - society. This conflict is not unique. It is also characteristic of the movements that preceded realism: classicism and romanticism. However, only realism considers the most typical situations. He is interested in the relationship between the crowd and the individual, the consciousness of the mass and the individual. 6. Historicism. Literature XIX century demonstrates a person inseparably from his environment and period of history. The authors studied the lifestyle and norms of behavior in society at a certain stage before writing your works. 7. Psychologism is the author’s transmission to the reader of the inner world of his characters: its dynamics, changes states of mind, analysis of the hero’s personality traits. How does the artist reveal the inner world of his hero? In the novel “Crime and Punishment,” the reader gets to know Raskolnikov’s emotions and feelings through the description of his appearance, the interior of the room, and even the image of the city. In order to reveal everything that happens in the soul of the main character, Dostoevsky does not limit himself to presenting his thoughts and statements. The author shows the situation in which Raskolnikov finds himself. A small closet, reminiscent of a closet, symbolizes the failure of his idea. Sonya's room, on the contrary, is spacious and bright. But most importantly, Dostoevsky pays special attention to the eyes. In Raskolnikov they are deep and dark. Sonya's are meek and blue. And, for example, nothing is said about Svidrigailov’s eyes. Not because the author forgot to describe the appearance of this hero. Rather, the point is that, according to Dostoevsky, people like Svidrigailov have no soul at all.
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V. Belinsky's teaching on realistic character: 1. An artist should not copy life, daguerreotype is a sign of documentary prose. The hallmark of a true work of art is the creation of types. (The typical is the general expressed through the individual) 2. The heroes of realism are multifaceted, contradictory - what does it mean that monolinearity and staticity are overcome
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Development of journalism at the beginning of the century Thick magazines are beginning to play an increasingly important role as an intelligent informant and interlocutor, and the names of their publishers are becoming no less popular than the names of fashionable writers. Different in direction and in the views of the publishers, they introduced the reading public to the news of European life, novelties in scientific fields and applied activities, and to the works of foreign and domestic poets and prose writers. The most popular among readers were "Bulletin of Europe" by Karamzin, "Son of the Fatherland" by Grech, "Northern Bee" by Bulgarin, "Telescope" by Nadezhdin, "Library for Reading" by Senkovsky, "Notes of the Fatherland" by Kraevsky. In 1832, 67 magazines and newspapers were published in Russia. There were 32 publications in Russian among them, mostly departmental magazines. There were only 8 public literary magazines published. In the 1840-50s. writers, publishers, who ruled the minds and souls of readers, are overshadowed by literary critic. The readership is beginning to need an experienced mentor who can teach them to appreciate true art. At the beginning of the century, literary salons played the role of unique clubs where literary, political, and philosophical opinions were exchanged, where news of Russian and foreign life was learned. The most famous of them were the salons of Olenin, Elagina, Rostopchina, Volkonskaya. The same role was played by the evenings: Saturdays of Zhukovsky, Aksakov, Thursdays of Grech, Fridays of Voeikov...
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Homework Historical situation at the turn of the 18th-19th century Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century Realism as a literary movement Works of G.R. Derzhavin Poetry of K.N. Batyushkov
Realism (from Late Latin reālis - material) is an artistic method in art and literature. The history of realism in world literature is unusually rich. The very idea of him changed at different stages artistic development, reflecting the persistent desire of artists for a truthful depiction of reality.
Illustration by V. Milashevsky for the novel by Charles Dickens “ Posthumous notes Pickwick Club.
Illustration by O. Vereisky for L. N. Tolstoy’s novel “Anna Karenina”.
Illustration by D. Shmarinov for F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment.”
Illustration by V. Serov for M. Gorky’s story “Foma Gordeev”.
Illustration by B. Zaborov for the novel by M. Andersen-Nexo “Ditte - Child of Man.”
However, the concept of truth, truth is one of the most difficult in aesthetics. For example, the theorist of French classicism N. Boileau called for being guided by the truth and “imitating nature.” But the romantic V. Hugo, an ardent opponent of classicism, urged “to consult only nature, truth and your inspiration, which is also truth and nature.” Thus, both defended "truth" and "nature".
The selection of life phenomena, their assessment, the ability to present them as important, characteristic, typical - all this is connected with the artist’s point of view on life, and this, in turn, depends on his worldview, on the ability to grasp the advanced movements of the era. The desire for objectivity often forces the artist to depict the real balance of power in society, even contrary to his own political convictions.
The specific features of realism depend on those historical conditions, in which art develops. National historical circumstances also determine the uneven development of realism in different countries.
Realism is not something given and unchangeable once and for all. In the history of world literature, several main types of its development can be outlined.
Not in science consensus about the initial period of realism. Many art historians attribute it to very distant eras: they talk about realism rock paintings primitive people, about the realism of ancient sculpture. In the history of world literature, many features of realism are found in the works of ancient world and early Middle Ages (in folk epic, for example, in Russian epics, in chronicles). However, the formation of realism as artistic system V European literatures It is customary to associate it with the era of the Renaissance (Rebirth), the greatest progressive revolution. A new understanding of life by a person who rejects the church sermon of slavish obedience is reflected in the lyrics of F. Petrarch, the novels of F. Rabelais and M. Cervantes, in the tragedies and comedies of W. Shakespeare. After centuries of medieval churchmen preaching that man is a “vessel of sin” and calling for humility, the literature and art of the Renaissance glorified man as supreme being nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the richness of his soul and mind. Renaissance realism is characterized by large-scale images (Don Quixote, Hamlet, King Lear), poeticization of the human personality, its ability to have great feelings (as in Romeo and Juliet) and at the same time high intensity tragic conflict, when the collision of a personality with the inert forces opposing it is depicted.
The next stage in the development of realism is the educational stage (see Enlightenment), when literature becomes (in the West) an instrument of direct preparation for the bourgeois-democratic revolution. Among the educators there were supporters of classicism; their work was influenced by other methods and styles. But in the 18th century. develops (in Europe) and the so-called educational realism, whose theorists were D. Diderot in France and G. Lessing in Germany. The English realistic novel, whose founder was D. Defoe, author of Robinson Crusoe (1719), acquired worldwide significance. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic hero appeared (Figaro in the trilogy of P. Beaumarchais, Louise Miller in the tragedy “Cunning and Love” by I. F. Schiller, images of peasants in A. N. Radishchev). Enlighteners of all phenomena public life and people’s actions were assessed as reasonable or unreasonable (and they saw the unreasonable primarily in all the old feudal orders and customs). They proceeded from this in their depiction of human character; their positive heroes are, first of all, the embodiment of reason, the negative ones are a deviation from the norm, the product of unreason, the barbarism of former times.
Enlightenment realism often allowed for convention. Thus, the circumstances in the novel and drama were not necessarily typical. They could be conditional, as in the experiment: “Suppose a person finds himself on desert island...". At the same time, Defoe depicts Robinson’s behavior not as it could actually be (the prototype of his hero went wild, even lost his articulate speech), but as he wants to present a person, fully armed with his physical and mental strength, as a hero, winner of forces nature. Faust in I. V. Goethe, shown in the struggle for the establishment of high ideals, is also conventional. Features of a well-known convention also distinguish D. I. Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor.”
A new type of realism emerged in the 19th century. This is critical realism. It differs significantly from both the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Its flourishing in the West is associated with the names of Stendhal and O. Balzac in France, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray in England, in Russia - A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.
Critical realism portrays the relationship between man and the environment in a new way. Human character is revealed in organic connection with social circumstances. The subject of deep social analysis has become the inner world of man; critical realism therefore simultaneously becomes psychological. Romanticism, which sought to penetrate the secrets of the human “I,” played a large role in the preparation of this quality of realism.
Deepening the knowledge of life and complicating the picture of the world in the critical realism of the 19th century. do not mean, however, some kind of absolute superiority over previous stages, for the development of art is marked not only by gains, but also by losses.
The scale of the images of the Renaissance was lost. The pathos of affirmation characteristic of the Enlighteners, their optimistic faith in the victory of good over evil, remained unique.
The rise of the labor movement in Western countries, formation in the 40s. XIX century Marxism not only influence the literature of critical realism, but also give rise to the first artistic experiments in depicting reality from the perspective of the revolutionary proletariat. In the realism of such writers as G. Weert, W. Morris, and the author of “The International” E. Pothier, new features are outlined that anticipate the artistic discoveries of socialist realism.
In Russia, the 19th century is a period of exceptional strength and scope in the development of realism. In the second half of the century, the artistic achievements of realism, bringing Russian literature to the international arena, won it worldwide recognition.
The richness and diversity of Russian realism of the 19th century. allow us to talk about its different forms.
Its formation is associated with the name of A. S. Pushkin, who led Russian literature onto the broad path of depicting “the fate of the people, the fate of man.” In the conditions of the accelerated development of Russian culture, Pushkin seems to be catching up with its previous lag, paving new paths in almost all genres and, with his universality and his optimism, turning out to be akin to the titans of the Renaissance. Pushkin’s work lays the foundations of critical realism, developed in the work of N.V. Gogol and after him in the so-called natural school.
Performance in the 60s. revolutionary democrats led by N. G. Chernyshevsky gives new features to Russian critical realism (the revolutionary nature of criticism, images of new people).
A special place in the history of Russian realism belongs to L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky. It was thanks to them that the Russian realistic novel acquired global significance. Their psychological mastery and insight into the “dialectics of the soul” opened the way for the artistic quests of 20th century writers. Realism in the 20th century all over the world bears the imprint of the aesthetic discoveries of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky.
The growth of the Russian liberation movement, which by the end of the century transferred the center of the world revolutionary struggle from the West to Russia, leads to the fact that the work of the great Russian realists becomes, as V. I. Lenin said about L. N. Tolstoy, “a mirror of the Russian revolution” according to their objective historical content, despite all the differences in their ideological positions.
The creative scope of Russian social realism is reflected in the wealth of genres, especially in the field of the novel: philosophical and historical (L. N. Tolstoy), revolutionary journalistic (N. G. Chernyshevsky), everyday (I. A. Goncharov), satirical (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), psychological (F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy). By the end of the century, he was an innovator in the genre of realistic story and original “ lyrical drama"A.P. Chekhov speaks.
It is important to emphasize that Russian realism XIX V. did not develop in isolation from the world historical and literary process. This was the beginning of an era when, according to K. Marx and F. Engels, “the fruits of the spiritual activity of individual nations become the common property.”
F. M. Dostoevsky noted as one of the features of Russian literature its “capacity for universality, all-humanity, all-response.” Here we are talking not so much about Western influences, but about the organic development in line with European culture of its centuries-old traditions.
At the beginning of the 20th century. the appearance of M. Gorky’s plays “The Bourgeois”, “At the Depths” and especially the novel “Mother” (and in the West - the novel by M. Andersen-Nexo “Pelle the Conqueror”) testifies to the formation socialist realism. In the 20s announces itself with major successes Soviet literature, and in the early 30s. In many capitalist countries, a literature of the revolutionary proletariat is emerging. The literature of socialist realism becomes important factor world literary development. It should be noted that Soviet literature as a whole retains more connections with the artistic experience of the 19th century than literature in the West (including socialist literature).
The beginning of the general crisis of capitalism, two world wars, the acceleration of the revolutionary process throughout the world under the influence October Revolution and existence Soviet Union, and after 1945, the formation of the world system of socialism - all this affected the fate of realism.
Critical realism, which continued to develop in Russian literature until the October Revolution (I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin) and in the West, in the 20th century. received further development, while undergoing significant changes. In critical realism of the 20th century. in the West, the most various influences, including some features of non-realistic movements of the 20th century. (symbolism, impressionism, expressionism), which, of course, does not exclude the struggle of realists against non-realistic aesthetics.
From about the 20s. In the literature of the West, there is a tendency towards in-depth psychologism, the transmission of the “stream of consciousness”. There is a so-called intellectual novel T. Manna; subtext takes on special significance, for example, in E. Hemingway. This focus on the individual and his spiritual world in the critical realism of the West significantly weakens its epic breadth. Epic scale in the 20th century. is the merit of the writers of socialist realism (“The Life of Klim Samgin” by M. Gorky, “ Quiet Don"M. A. Sholokhov, "Walking in the Torment" by A. N. Tolstoy, "The Dead Remain Young" by A. Zegers).
Unlike the realists of the 19th century. writers of the 20th century more often they resort to fantasy (A. France, K. Chapek), to convention (for example, B. Brecht), creating parable novels and parable dramas (see Parable). At the same time, in the realism of the 20th century. the document, the fact, triumphs. Documentary works appear in different countries within the framework of both critical realism and socialist realism.
Thus, while remaining documentary, the autobiographical books of E. Hemingway, S. O'Casey, I. Becher, such classic books of socialist realism as “Report with a Noose Around the Neck” by Yu. Fuchik and “The Young Guard” by A. A. Fadeeva.
Spiritual climate Western Europe after 1830 changed significantly compared to romantic era. The subjective idealism of the romantics was replaced by faith in the omnipotence of reason and science, and faith in progress. Two ideas determined the thinking of Europeans during this period - positivism (a direction in philosophy based on the collection of objective facts for the purpose of scientific analysis) and organicism ( evolutionary theory Darwin, extended to other areas of life). The 19th century is a century of rapid growth of science and technology, the rise of the social sciences, and this desire for scientificity penetrates into literature. Realist artists saw their task as describing in literature all the richness of the phenomena of the surrounding world, all the diversity human types, that is science XIX centuries and realistic literature are imbued with the same spirit of collecting facts, systematizing and developing a consistent concept of reality. And the explanation of reality was given on the basis of the principles of evolution: in the life of society and the individual, the action of the same forces as in nature, similar mechanisms of natural selection, was seen.
By the thirties of the 19th century, the new system public relations. It was a bourgeois system, in which each individual was quite rigidly assigned to a certain social-class environment, that is, the time of romantic “freedom” and “restlessness” of a person had passed. In classical bourgeois society, a person’s belonging to a certain class appeared as an immutable law of existence, and accordingly became the principle of the artistic development of life. Therefore, realists use the discoveries of the romantics in the field of psychology, but fit a newly understood person into a historically accurate, contemporary life. For realists, man is determined primarily by the socio-historical environment, and realism is based on the principle of social-class determinism.
The realists' perception of human character also changed. For the romantics, exceptional character was the subjective property of the individual; the hero of a realistic work is always a unique product of interaction historical process and specific (biological, individual, random) circumstances, therefore life experience Realists understand each person as unique and valuable by this very uniqueness, and, on the other hand, the life experience of each person is of general, universal interest, because it contains repeatable, universal features. Here lies the basis of the realistic doctrine of type, the basis of realistic typification.
Realists directly inherited from the romantics the intrinsic value of the human personality they discovered, but assigned this personality to a specific place, time, and environment. Realistic art is democratic - realists first brought to the stage " little man", which had not previously been considered an interesting subject for literature, had its rights restored. Realistic literature imbued with a generally optimistic spirit: while criticizing their contemporary society, realist writers were confident in the effectiveness of their criticism, in the fact that this society could be improved and reformed, and they believed in the inevitability of progress.
Realism of the 19th century sought to cover life as widely as possible, to show all the details of the social structure, all types of human relationships, which, of course, required works large volumes. This is partly why the novel becomes the leading genre in the literature of realism - the genre of a large epic narrative in which there is a place for all this gigantic life material. Especially at the early stage of realism, novels were distinguished by a larger volume than is customary today. In addition, the novel was in the 19th century the newest of the existing genres, that is, a genre without the burden of canonical tradition.
The novel is a genre open to everything new; the novelist explores life freely and impartially, without knowing in advance where his artistic search will lead him. This novel is akin to the spirit of scientific research; this aspect of the novel was emphasized realists XIX centuries, and under their pen the genre turned into a tool for research and knowledge of reality, external and internal conflicts human life. A realistic novel reflects reality in the forms of life itself, and since the era of realism the concept of " fiction"begins to be associated no longer with poetry and drama, but primarily with prose. The novel becomes the dominant genre of world literature.
G.K. Kosikov writes: “The main feature of the romantic situation is the change in the internal and external position of the hero in the course of various clashes with the world around him.” In a realistic novel, as a rule, a “positive” hero opposes existing forms of social coexistence as the bearer of an ideal, but, unlike romantic literature, in a realistic novel, the discord between the hero and the world does not turn into a complete break. The hero may reject his immediate environment, but never rejects the world as a whole; he always retains the hope of realizing his subjective world in some other spheres of existence. Therefore, a realistic novel is based simultaneously on the contradiction between the hero and the world and on the deep internal community between them. The search for the hero of a realistic novel in the first stages of its existence was limited to the sphere of social circumstances offered by history. In the 19th century, the social mobility of the individual increased sharply; The example of Napoleon's fantastic career became a model for changing social status for new generations. This new phenomenon of reality was reflected in the creation of such genre variety realistic novel as a "career novel". Let's consider it using the example of the works of the creators of the realistic novel, Stendhal and Balzac.