The study of literature as the art of words. Literature is the art of words. History and role of literature

30.03.2019

The dual aspect of literary works has given scientists reason to say that literary literature combines two different arts: the art of fiction (manifested mainly in fictional prose, which is relatively easily translated into other languages) and the art of words as such (which determines the appearance of poetry, which is losing its translations are perhaps the most important thing). In our opinion, fiction and the actual verbal principle would be more accurately characterized not as two different arts, but as two inseparable facets of one phenomenon: artistic literature.

Only in literature does a person appear as a speaker, to which M.M. attached fundamental importance. Bakhtin: “The main feature of literature is that language here is not only a means of communication and expression-image, but also an object of image.” The scientist argued that “literature is not just the use of language, but its artistic knowledge” and that “the main problem of its study” is “the problem of the relationship between depicting and depicted speech.”

As you can see, the imagery of a literary work is two-dimensional and its text constitutes the unity of two “unbreakable lines.” This is, firstly, a chain of verbal designations of “non-verbal” reality and, secondly, a series of statements belonging to someone (narrator, lyrical hero, characters), thanks to which literature directly masters the thinking processes of people and their emotions, widely captures their spiritual ( including intellectual) communication, is not given to other, “non-verbal” arts.

In literary works, characters often reflect on philosophical, social, moral, religious, and historical topics. Sometimes the intellectual side human life here comes to the fore (the famous ancient Indian “Bhagavad Gita”, “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky, “The Magic Mountain” by T. Mann).

Mastering human consciousness, fiction, according to V.A. Grekhnev, “enlarges the element of thought”: the writer “is irresistibly attracted by thought, but a thought that is not chilled and not detached from experience and evaluation, but thoroughly permeated by them. It is not its results revealed in objectively calm and harmonious structures of logic, but its personal flavor, its living energy - first of all, this is attractive to the artist of words where thought becomes the subject of depiction.”

V.E. Khalizev Theory of literature. 1999

FICTION AS THE ART OF WORDS. LITERARY PROCESS

Fiction (from the Latin “letter”, “letter”) is a type of art that masters the world in artistic words.

Art is the reproduction of life in artistic images. It has always been and is one of the most important factors in the spiritual life of mankind, because it stimulates creative activity and enriches a person’s life with emotional experiences and reflections.

There are different types art. They are conventionally divided into three types.

The first includes the so-called spatial forms of art, which include painting, sculpture and architecture, and artistic photography. They are called “spatial” because the objects they depict are perceived by a person in a motionless form, as if frozen in space.

The second type is the temporary arts, which include music, singing, dance, mime and fiction. They are called temporary because, unlike the static form of image characteristic of spatial arts, they reproduce life in Rus', in its development, which occurs over a certain time.

The third type is the so-called synthetic forms of art, combining elements of both spatial and temporal types. The form of image in theatre, cinema and television is realized both in space and in time.

Types of art also differ in the material in which their works stand and which they use for the artistic reproduction of life. Based on such “material” features, we define literature as the art of words, in comparison, for example, with sculpture - the art of stone or clay, painting - the art of paint, tank - the art of rhythmic movements of the body, pantomime - the art of gestures and facial expressions, music - the art of sounds and etc.

Literature is the highest form of art; it has advantages over other types, because it works with words, and therefore is able not to be limited in depicting, revealing the inner and outer world of a person, his subtlest experiences. This is its main difference from other forms of art. The meaning of the word was emphasized in the Bible (Gospel of John), where its divine essence was proclaimed. The word is the main element of literature, which creates a connection between the material and the spiritual.

So, the word is the material of a literary image. Even the German philosopher Hegel called the word the most plastic material. By means of the word - this most flexible material - one can reproduce what is depicted in almost every other form of art. Thus, poetry, in its methods of sound organization, approaches music. Prosaic verbal images can create the illusion of a plastic image, etc. In addition, the word is the only art material that makes it possible to depict human speech. Words can describe a sound, color, smell, convey a mood, “tell” a melody, “draw” a picture. The verbal image can compete with the pictorial and musical. And yet it has its limits. Literature uses only words.

In prehistoric times, literature existed in orally. With the advent of writing, a new stage in the development of literature began, although folklore does not lose its importance as the basis of literature to this day.

Literature exists in three equal types of artistic text (gens): epic (literally - a story), lyric (literally - something performed to the sounds of a lyre), drama (literally - action). One type differs from another in the way it forms an artistic image. For example, drama unites works intended for performance on stage, its genres: tragedy, comedy, drama, melodrama, farce. Lyrics are most often plotless, characterized by high emotionality, subjectivity, and rich artistic image. The purpose of an epic is to lay out a sequential story about a series of events. In written literature, epic genres are novel, story, short story, short story, and essay. The characteristics of each of these genres also require clarification. So, for example, historical legends antiquity formed the basis for medieval chivalry and comic novel, and then developed into everyday, historical, adventure, romance and other novels.

No other artistic experience can replace artistic reading. This is explained by literature’s reliance on natural speech, in which the experience of mankind is concentrated, its focus on creative perception, on the work of imagination, fantasy, and on capturing the deep meaning (subtext).

Types of art are not isolated, they are in contact with each other, complement each other, widely and comprehensively revealing a person’s life, the depths of her soul. Each type brings something of its own, new, original to the treasury of world artistic culture. In particular, mythological and literary subjects and motifs are often used as the basis for many works of other types of art - painting, sculpture, theater, ballet, opera, music, cinema.

The world literary process is the historical movement of world literature, which develops in complex connections and interactions. This is at the same time the history of the creation and accumulation of moral, ethical and artistic values from ancient times to the present.

World (world) literature is a term introduced by Johann Wolfgang Goethe in the 19th century. Goethe's understanding of world literature provides for the joint development of the literatures of individual nations, which, while interacting, at the same time retain their originality and uniqueness.

Until a certain time, the literary process in each country had a relatively closed, purely national character. But with the development of economic and cultural ties, many national and local literatures form one world literature.

The global literary process is determined by the development of various national literatures, which have their own originality, but at the same time there are general patterns inherent in literature as a whole.

Literary process in different countries ah and national cultures go through similar stages, and the development of genres, methods and styles reflects this.

National literature is the literature of a separate nation, a people, which has its own national identity, is determined by a number of factors (primarily the mentality of the people) and is reproduced in a system of content and formal-style features inherent in the works of representatives of certain nations.

The development and functioning of the literary process occurs both during a certain era and throughout the history of a nation, country, and world. In the history of world literature, several stages of development are known.

Each writer relies on the traditions of both immediate and distant (in time and space) predecessors, participants in the literary process of the Russian and foreign literature, to a certain extent using all the experience artistic development humanity.

An important role in the literary process is played by the interaction of literature with other types of art, with cultural and social phenomena, with science and philosophy. The history of literature is closely connected with the history of society, but it has its own, internal laws of development.

Stages of development of world literature

Mythology, oral folk art

Ancient literature (8th century BC - 5th century AD)

Literature of the Middle Ages ( V - X V centuries)

Renaissance Literature (X V - X VII centuries)

Literature of the 17th century: Baroque and classicism

Literature of the Enlightenment (late XVII - XVIII centuries): Enlightenment realism, Enlightenment classicism, sentimentalism, Rococo

Literature of the 19th century: romanticism and realism

Literature late XIX- second half of the 20th century: modernism (other directions are developing in parallel - realism, romanticism)

Literature of the last third of XX - beginning of the XXI centuries: postmodernism, development of other directions

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RK

KAZAKH UNIVERSITY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND WORLD LANGUAGES NAMED AFTER ABYLAI KHAN

Individual project

Specialty: foreign philology (RHF)

Discipline: Introduction to literary criticism

Completed by: Kibler Victoria

Checked by: Lyudinina O.E.

Almaty 2014

Introduction

Literature as the art of words

Spatial and temporal arts

Homer's techniques for "translating" the "language" of spatial arts into the "language" of poetry"

The creative process of a writer

Semantics of terms denoting forms of human presence in a literary work

Introduction

literature spatial creative term

Literature works with words - its main difference from other arts. The meaning of the word was given in the Gospel - a divine idea of the essence of the word. The word is the main element of literature, the connection between the material and the spiritual. A word is perceived as the sum of the meanings that culture has given it. Through the word it is carried out with the general in world culture. Visual culture is that which can be perceived visually. Verbal culture - more consistent with human needs - the word, the work of thought, the formation of personality (the world of spiritual entities). There are areas of culture that do not require serious consideration. There is literature at depth that requires a deep relationship and experience. Works of literature are a deep awakening of a person’s inner strengths in various ways, because... literature has material.

Literature as the art of words

The language of fiction carries a huge aesthetic principle, so the author work of art defines speech norm, is the creator of language. Artistic speech absorbs the most different shapes speech activity. For many centuries, the language of fiction was determined by the rules of rhetoric and oratory. Speech (including written) had to be convincing and impressive; hence the characteristic speech techniques - numerous repetitions, “embellishments”, emotionally charged words, rhetorical(!) questions, etc. Authors competed in eloquence, stylistics were determined by increasingly strict rules, and literary works themselves were often filled with sacred meaning (especially in the Middle Ages). As a result, to XVII century(the era of classicism) literature turned out to be accessible and understandable to a rather narrow circle of educated people. Spoken speech is connected with the communication of people in their private lives, therefore it is simple and free from regulation. In the XIX - XX centuries. Literature in general is perceived by writers and scientists as a unique form of conversation between the author and the reader; it is not without reason that the address “my dear reader” is associated primarily with this era. Artistic speech often also includes written forms of non-fiction speech (for example, diaries or memoirs); it easily allows deviations from language norm and carries out innovations in the sphere of speech activity (let us recall, for example, the word creation of Russian futurists). Today in works of art you can find the most modern forms speech activity - SMS quotes, excerpts from emails and much more. Moreover, different types of art are often mixed: literature and painting/architecture, literature and music, etc. Imagery of speech is very often achieved through the use of words in a figurative sense. For example: work is in full swing. The words that the writer uses in a figurative sense are called tropes (this is a Greek word translated as “image, turn, turn”). Among the tropes, the most often found and used are: Epitas, Similes, Metaphors. METAPHOR - the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in other words - an unnamed comparison). A metaphor creates an image that is conveyed to the reader or listener. The term “literature” also refers to any works of human thought that are enshrined in the written word and have social significance. Literature is distinguished between technical, scientific, journalistic, reference, epistolary, etc. However, in the usual and more strict sense, literature refers to works of artistic writing.

Spatial and temporal arts

If you plunge headlong into modern art history literature and try to independently identify all the types of art that humanity has created over all the years of its development, you will very soon come to the conclusion that this is a very difficult and ambiguous question. You will be surprised to find out that in the modern art history literature of the world there is no description of a single and unquestionable, not to mention criticism, scheme or system for classifying types of art.

To address the issue of spatio-temporal forms of art, it is necessary to understand the classification of types of art. All species differ in specific ways of displaying the world and the senses used for perception. It is by these characteristics that it is determined which of the three types of groups of the classical classification a particular species fits:

1) The group of spatial types of art - it is also static, perceived by sight, works from this group have a clear connection between the disclosure of the artistic image and the spatial construction. This group includes: architecture, photography, painting, sculpture. Spatial views They are called arts because for this group of arts, spatial construction is essential in the disclosure of various artistic images.

2) The group of temporary arts - it is also dynamic, perceived by the ear (not in all cases), they are called arts because in them the composition unfolding over time to reveal the image acquires key importance. This group includes: literature and music.

3) The group of spatio-temporal arts - it is also synthetic, perceived simultaneously by hearing and sight, they are called because they simultaneously profess both spatial and temporal priorities in revealing the image. Spatiotemporal forms of art are sometimes called spectacular or synthetic. These include: cinema, theater, choreography.

The significant difference between the types of arts and the need for their existence is caused by the fact that not one of them has its own own funds cannot give an artistic, comprehensive picture of the world. Such a picture of the world can only be created by the entire artistic culture of man, as a creator, which has been formed over centuries. true art- art, which in turn consists of individual types of art.

Homer's techniques for "translating" the "language" of spatial arts into the "language" of poetry"

Without touching here on the question of how successful a poet can be in depicting bodily beauty, we can, however, consider the following proposition to be an indisputable truth. Since the entire boundless area of perfection is open to the poet for imitation, the outer, outer shell, in the presence of which perfection becomes beauty in sculpture, can only be for him one of the most insignificant means of awakening in us interest in his images.

In Homer there are two types of creatures and actions: visible and invisible. Painting cannot allow this difference: for it everything is visible, and visible in the same way.

If it is true that painting, in its imitations of reality, uses means and signs completely different from the means and signs of poetry, namely: painting - bodies and colors taken in space, poetry - articulate sounds perceived in time - if it is indisputable, that the means of expression must be in close connection with the expression, it follows that the signs of expression located next to each other should denote only such objects or such parts of them that in reality appear located next to each other; on the contrary, signs of expression following each other can only designate such objects or such parts of them as actually appear to us in a temporal sequence.

In works of painting, where everything is given only simultaneously, in coexistence, only one moment of action can be depicted, and therefore it is necessary to choose the most significant moment, from which both the previous and subsequent moments would become clear.

I find that Homer does not depict anything other than sequential actions, and he draws all individual objects only to the extent of their participation in the action, and usually no more than one line. Is it surprising if the painter sees little or no business for himself where Homer paints?

To characterize each thing, as I said, Homer uses only one trait. A ship for him is either a black ship, or a full ship, or fast ship, or - at most - a well-equipped black ship. Homer does not enter into any further description of the ship. If special circumstances sometimes force Homer to stop our attention longer on some material object, then this still does not result in a picture that a painter could reproduce with his brush; on the contrary, with the help of countless techniques, he knows how to break the image of this object into a whole series of moments, in each of which the object appears in a new form, while the painter must wait for the last of these moments in order to show in a completed form that which we saw appearing from the poet. So, for example, if Homer wants to tell how Agamemnon was dressed, he makes him put on before our eyes one piece of clothing after another: a soft tunic, a wide cloak, beautiful sandals, a sword. Only after getting dressed, the king takes the scepter. Instead of a picture of the scepter, he tells us its history. We first see him in Vulcan's workshop; then it shines in the hands of Jupiter, then it is a sign of the dignity of Mercury; then it serves as a commanding staff in the hands of the warlike Pelops, a shepherd’s staff in Atreus, etc.

Thus, I finally become acquainted with this scepter better than if the poet had placed it before my eyes or Vulcan himself had handed it to me.

Since verbal designations are arbitrary designations, we can use them to list sequentially all the parts of an object that actually appear before us in space. But such a property is only one of the properties belonging to speech in general and the designations it uses, from which it does not yet follow that it is especially suitable for the needs of poetry. The poet cares not only about being understandable, his images must not only be clear and distinct - the prose writer is also satisfied with this. It is in this sense that we explained above the concept of a poetic picture. But a poet must paint constantly. Descriptions of material objects, excluded from the realm of poetry, are therefore quite appropriate where there is no question of poetic illusion, where the writer addresses only the minds of the readers and deals only with clear and, if possible, complete concepts.

The creative process of a writer

“The secret of writing lies in the eternal and involuntary music in the soul. If it is not there, a person can only “pretend to be a writer.”

Different people are predisposed to artistic creativity to varying degrees: ability - giftedness - talent - genius. An artist who is on a higher rung of this creative ladder retains those qualities that are inherent in those who are located on its lower steps, but must certainly have a number of additional high qualities.

Capabilities An artist, according to the American psychologist Guilford, involves six inclinations: fluency of thinking, associativity, expressiveness, the ability to switch from one class of objects to another, adaptive flexibility, and the ability to give the artistic form the necessary outlines. Abilities ensure the creation of artistic values of public interest.

Giftedness presupposes acute attention to life, the ability to choose objects of attention, to consolidate in memory the theme of associations and connections dictated by the creative imagination. An artistically gifted person creates works that have lasting significance for of a given society for a significant period of its development. Giftedness is the ability to focus attention on objects worthy of selective attention, to extract impressions from memory and include them in a system of associations and connections dictated by the creative imagination.

Talent gives rise to artistic values that have enduring national and sometimes universal significance. "Most people prefer the middle ground between mediocrity and genius - talent. Not everyone wants to exchange their whole life for art. And how many times does a genius, at the end of his career, repent of his choice! "It was better not to surprise the world and live in this world" - says Ibsen in his last drama." (Shestov. 1991).

Genius fully expressing the essence of its time, most often it does not seem to fit into its era. He, one might say, pulls the thread of tradition from the past to the future and therefore part of his work belongs to the past and part to the future. And only mediocre contemporaries see only what is in the genius of the present, and even then they see incompletely. Genius creates the highest universal values that have significance for all times. The artist’s genius is manifested both in the power of perception of the world and in the depth of his impact on humanity. However, artistic genius is not a form of mental pathology and, according to Gogol’s fair judgment, “art is the introduction into the soul of harmony and order, and not confusion and disorder.” . This applies both to the impact of the work on the public and to the process artistic creativity.

2. Artistic creativity as a specific activity

Artistic creativity is a mysterious process. I. Kant said: “... Newton could imagine all his steps, which he had to take from the first principles of geometry to his great and deep discoveries, as completely clear not only to himself, but also to everyone else, and to designate them for succession; but no Homer or Wieland cannot show how ideas full of fantasy and at the same time rich in thoughts appear and are combined in his head, because he himself does not know this and, therefore, cannot teach this to anyone else. So, in the scientific field, the greatest inventor differs from. a pathetic imitator and student only in degree, while from one whom nature has endowed with the ability to fine arts, it differs specifically" (Kant. T. 5. pp. 324-325).

3. Creativity as the embodiment of a plan

The creative process begins with an idea. The latter is the result of the perception of life phenomena and their understanding by a person on the basis of his deep individual characteristics (degree of giftedness, experience, general cultural preparation). The paradox of artistic creativity: it begins with the end, or rather, its end is inextricably linked with the beginning. An artist “thinks” as a viewer, a writer as a reader. The plan contains not only the writer’s attitude and his vision of the world, but also the final link in the creative process - the reader. The writer at least intuitively “plans” the artistic impact and post-reception activity of the reader. The purpose of artistic communication with feedback affects its initial link - the idea.

1) The idea is characterized by lack of formality and, at the same time, semiotically unformed semantic certainty, outlining the outlines of the theme and idea of the work. In the plan “it is still unclear through the magic crystal” (Pushkin), the features of the future literary text are distinguished.

2) The idea is formed first in the form of intonational “noise”, embodying an emotional-value attitude towards the topic, and in the form of the outlines of the topic itself in a non-verbal (= intonational) form. 3) The idea has the potential for symbolic expression, fixation and embodiment in images. Factor generating artistic design in its unique originality, - creativity (the creative deep layer of the personality), the center of creativity, a certain creative core of the personality, which determines the invariant of all artistic decisions. Everything created by the artist is grouped around this center (See: Rozanov. 1990. P. 39). In the writer's work there are invariants determined by the deep generative layer of his spiritual world. The writer creates his own artistic world. Moreover, each poet is distinguished by his own vision of reality, manifested in every cell of his texts.

Creativity is the process of translating an idea into a sign system and a system of images growing on its basis, the process of objectifying a thought in a text, the process of alienating an idea from the artist and transmitting it through the work to the reader, viewer, listener.

4. Artisticcreativity - creation

unpredictable artistic reality

Art does not repeat life (as reflected in the theory of reflection), but creates a special reality. Artistic reality It may be parallel to history, but it is never its cast, its copy.

“Art is different from life in that it always runs repetitive. In everyday life, you can tell the same joke three times and three times, causing laughter, and turn out to be the soul of society. In art, this form of behavior is called “cliché.” Art is a recoilless weapon, and its development is determined by the dynamics and logic of the material itself, the previous fate of the means that require finding (or prompting) each time a qualitatively new aesthetic solution

5. Psychological mechanisms of artistic creativity

Jung believed that psychology could be connected with aesthetics. There is a border zone between these sciences - the psychology of art (the psychology of creativity and the psychology of perception).

Artistic creativity begins with keen attention to the life of the world and involves "rare impressions" (Goethe), the ability to retain them in memory and comprehend them.

Memory - psychological factor of creativity. For an artist it is not mirror-like, but selective and of a creative nature. The painter Falk ordered his students to memorize impressions of nature and then write sketches from memory. It is known what importance memory had in Proust’s work. Believing that reality is artistically formed precisely in memory, he resurrected the past and then captured the memories in the work.

Imagination combines and creatively reproduces blocks of ideas, impressions and images stored in memory, combines and draws living pictures in the artist’s mind, which he records in an artistic text. Thanks to imagination, living pictures appear in the artist’s mind. Imagination has many varieties: phantasmagoric - in Hoffman, philosophical-lyrical - in Tyutchev, romantically sublime - in Vrubel, painfully hypertrophied - in Dali, full of mystery - in Bergman, realistically strict and grotesque - in Fellini. Creative imagination is fundamentally different from hallucination. According to Flaubert, when you hallucinate, you experience horror and feel that you are dying, but the fruits of the imagination bring joy and aesthetic pleasure.

Associations - thoughts or images that arise when seeing an object or when perceiving a statement; by establishing similarities, or by repulsion, through memory or finding analogies with the help of the subconscious; “roll calls” arising from contiguity, similarity and contrast between impressions of existence, leaps of imagination unpredictable by logic, comparing these impressions and unexpected combinations of phenomena far removed from each other. All stream of consciousness literature is based on associative thinking. Associations arise based on previous experience. The word by its nature is polysemantic, multivalent and provides the poet with the richest possibilities of associations. Not a single form of art can do without associations.

Inspiration - a specifically creative state of clarity of thought, intensity of its work, richness and speed of associations, deep insight into the essence life problems, a powerful “release” of life and artistic experience accumulated in the subconscious and its direct inclusion in creativity, heightened virtuosity in the sense of form. Inspiration gives rise to extraordinary creative energy; it is almost synonymous with creativity. The winged horse Pegasus has been a symbol of poetry and inspiration since ancient times. Inspiration makes the creative process especially fruitful.

6. Consciousness and subconsciousness

Consciousness and subconsciousness are components of the creative process of creating a work. The important role of the subconscious in artistic thinking already led Plato and other ancient Greek philosophers to interpret creativity as an ecstatic, divinely inspired, bacchic state. For Homer, a rhapsode is a singer illuminated from above, and Pindar called the poet a prophet of the muses. The aesthetics of romanticism absolutized the role of the unconscious in the creative process. Consciousness determines many essential aspects of creativity. It controls the goal, the ultimate task of creativity and the main contours of the artistic concept of the work, highlights the “bright spot” in creative thinking and organizes the artist’s entire experience around this light. The “bright spot” provides introspection and self-control of the artist, helps him to self-critically analyze, evaluate the draft and bring it to perfection. Consciousness helps the artist to carry out critical analysis of all your creativity and draw conclusions that will contribute to the further growth of mastery.

Ideas that pass from the subconscious to consciousness are not always correct, since in the subconscious there are no logical criteria for truth. It is beauty that is the criterion for the transfer of images from the subconscious to consciousness, where a strict check of the material received from the subconscious is carried out. Born by the subconscious, selected by an aesthetic feeling, the image enters consciousness. Here it is logically verified, enlightened by reason, processed (conjectured, justified, connected With cultural fund and is enriched by it). So first aesthetic feeling(at the level of intuition), then strict logic (at the level of consciousness) produces " natural selection"from a multitude of ideas and images. Only the most beautiful and true ones “survive.” The transition from the subconscious to consciousness is associated with a huge creative increment. An idea or image logically verified by the mind deepens and receives its completeness.

Semantics of terms,denoting forms of human presence in a literary work

In literary works, images of people, and in some cases their likenesses: humanized animals, plants and things (a fairy-tale hut on chicken legs) are invariably present and, as a rule, fall into the spotlight of readers' attention. There are different forms of human presence in literary works. This is the narrator-storyteller, lyrical hero And character, capable of revealing a person with the utmost fullness and breadth. This term is taken from French and is of Latin origin. The ancient Romans used the word “persona” to designate the mask worn by an actor, and later the face depicted in a work of art. The phrases “literary hero” and “ character" However, these expressions also carry additional meanings: the word “hero” emphasizes the positive role, brightness, unusualness, and exclusivity of the person depicted, and the phrase “character” refers to the fact that the character manifests himself primarily in the performance of actions.

A character is either the fruit of the writer’s pure invention (Gulliver and the Lilliputians by J. Swift; Major Kovalev, who lost his nose, by N.V. Gogol) or the result of conjecture on the appearance of a real-life person (whether historical figures or people biographically close to the writer, or even himself); or, finally, the result of processing and completing already known literary heroes, such as, say, Don Juan or Faust. Along with literary heroes as human individuals, sometimes group, collective characters turn out to be very significant (the crowd in the square in several scenes of “Boris Godunov” by A. S. Pushkin, testifying to and expressing the people’s opinion).

The character seems to have a dual nature. Firstly, he is the subject of the depicted action, the stimulus for the unfolding of events that make up the plot. Secondly, and this is perhaps the main thing, the character has an independent significance in the composition of the work, independent of the plot (event series): he acts as a bearer of stable and stable (sometimes, however, undergoing changes) properties, traits, qualities.

Characters are characterized by the actions they perform (almost primarily), as well as by forms of behavior and communication (for it is not only the What a person does, but also that How he behaves at the same time), features of appearance and close surroundings (in particular - belonging to the hero things), thoughts, feelings, intentions. And all these manifestations of man in a literary work have a certain resultant - a kind of center, which M.M. Bakhtin called core personality, A.A. Ukhtomsky - dominant, determined starting intuitions person. The phrase is widely used to denote the stable core of people’s consciousness and behavior value orientation. Value orientations (they can also be called life positions) are very heterogeneous and multifaceted. The consciousness and behavior of people can be directed towards religious and moral, strictly moral, cognitive, and aesthetic values. They are also associated with the sphere of instincts, with bodily life and the satisfaction of physical needs, with the desire for fame, authority, and power.

Author invariably expresses his attitude to the position, attitudes, value orientation your character. At the same time, the image of the character appears as the embodiment of the writer’s concept, idea, i.e. as something whole within the framework of another, broader, actually artistic integrity(works). He depends on this integrity; one might say, he serves it at the will of the author. With any serious development of the character sphere of the work, the reader inevitably penetrates into the spiritual world of the author: in the images of the heroes he sees the creative will of the writer. The author's attitude towards the hero can be predominantly either alienated or related, but not neutral. Writers have repeatedly spoken about the closeness or alienness of their characters. In literary works, one way or another there is a distance between the character and the author. It occurs even in the autobiographical genre, where the writer, from a certain temporary distance, comprehends his own life experience. The author can look at his hero as if from the bottom up (the lives of the saints), or, on the contrary, from the top down (works of an accusatory and satirical nature). But most deeply rooted in literature (especially last centuries) a situation of essential equality between the writer and the character (but not identity).

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Literature on childbirth

E?pos(ancient Greek ?πος - “word”, “narration”) - a narrative about events supposed in the past (as if they had happened and are remembered by the narrator). Epic works describe objective reality external to the author. Character descriptions focus on their behavior and actions rather than inner world, as in the lyrics. Biography novels, very popular in the 19th century, belong to epic works. Examples include Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace, Stendhal's Red and Black, Galsworthy's Forsyte Saga and many others. The genre got its name from folk poems and songs composed in ancient times, also called epics.

Epic genres: fable, epic, ballad, myth, short story, story, short story, novel, epic novel, fairy tale, epic, artistic essay.

Lyrics- a type of literature that is based on an appeal to the sphere of the internal - to states of human consciousness, emotions, impressions, experiences. Even if there is a narrative element in the works, a lyrical work is always subjective and focused on the hero. The characteristics of a lyrical work are “conciseness”, “monologue”, “unity of the lyrical plot” and “instantaneity” (“precision”, “modernity”). Most lyrical works relate to poetry.

Lyrical genres: ode, message, stanzas, elegy, epigram, madrigal, eclogue, epitaph.

Drama- a type of literature that primarily reproduces the world external to the author - actions, relationships between people, conflicts, but unlike the epic, it has not a narrative, but a dialogical form. In dramatic works, the text on behalf of the author is episodic in nature, mostly limited to stage directions and explanations of the plot. Most dramatic works are written for subsequent production in the theater.

Dramatic genres: drama, comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy, vaudeville, farce, melodrama.

Types of text by structure

Prose

Prose is considered to be a literary text in which a separate rhythm, independent of speech, does not invade the linguistic fabric and does not affect the content. However, a number of borderline phenomena are known: many prose writers deliberately give their works some signs of poetry (one can mention the highly rhythmic prose of Andrei Bely or the rhymed fragments in Vladimir Nabokov’s novel “The Gift”). The exact boundaries between prose and poetry have been an ongoing debate among literary scholars from different countries over the last century.

Prose is widely used in fiction - in the creation of novels, short stories, etc. Some examples of such works have been known for many centuries, but they have developed into an independent form of literary works relatively recently.

Novel- the most popular variety modern prose(however, a novel in verse is also known in literature) - is a fairly long narrative, covering a significant period in the life of one or several characters and describing this period in great detail. As a widespread genre, novels appeared relatively late, although they already took shape in late antiquity. antique novel, in many ways close in structure and tasks to modern ones. Among the early classic examples of the European novel are Gargantua and Pantagruel (1533-1546) by François Rabelais and Don Quixote (1600) by Cervantes. In Asian literature, the novel in the modern sense is closer to early works- for example, the Chinese classic novel “The Three Kingdoms” or the Japanese “Genji Monogatari” (“The Tale of Prince Genji”).

In Europe, early novels were not considered serious literature; their creation seemed not at all difficult. Later, however, it became clear that prose can provide aesthetic pleasure without the use of poetic techniques. In addition, the absence of rigid boundaries of poetry allows authors to focus more deeply on the content of the work, to work more fully with the details of the plot, in fact, more fully than can be expected even from narratives in poetic form. This freedom also allows authors to experiment with different styles within the same work.

Poetry

In general, a poem is a literary work that has a special rhythmic structure that does not follow from the natural rhythm of the language. The nature of this rhythm may be different depending on the properties of the language itself: for example, for languages in which great value has a difference in vowel sounds by length (such as the ancient Greek language), it is natural for the emergence of a poetic rhythm built on the ordering of syllables based on length/shortness, and for languages in which vowels differ not in length, but in the force of exhalation (the vast majority of modern European languages structured exactly like this), it is natural to use a poetic rhythm that arranges syllables according to stressed/unstressed. This is how different systems of versification arise.

For the Russian ear, the familiar appearance of a poem is associated with the syllabic-tonic rhythm and the presence of rhyme in the poem, but neither one nor the other is actually a necessary feature of poetry that distinguishes it from prose. In general, the role of rhythm in a poem is not only to give the text a peculiar musicality, but also to the impact that this rhythm has on the meaning: thanks to the rhythm, some words and expressions (for example, those that appear at the end of a poetic line, rhymed) are highlighted in the poetic speech , accented.

Poetic speech, earlier than prosaic speech, was recognized as a special phenomenon characteristic of a literary text and distinguishing it from ordinary everyday speech. The first known literary works - for the most part, ancient epics (for example, the Sumerian "Tale of Gilgamesh", dating back to about 2200-3000 BC) - are poetic texts. At the same time, the poetic form is not necessarily associated with artistry: the formal features of poetry help it perform a mnemonic function, and therefore different times V different cultures Scientific, legal, genealogical, and pedagogical works in verse were distributed.

Artistic methods and directions

Baroque is a movement characterized by a combination of realistic descriptions with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, rich rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, and oxymorons were widely used. Baroque literature is characterized by a desire for diversity, a summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedicism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a desire to study being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity).
Classicism is a movement whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres—fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière)—also achieved high development.
Sentimentalism is a movement that places emphasis on the reader's perception, that is, on the sensuality that arises when reading them, and is characterized by a tendency toward idealization and moralizing.
Romanticism is a multifaceted movement characterized by an interest in the sublime, folklore, mysticism, travel, the elements, and the theme of good and evil.
Realism is a direction in literature that most truthfully and impartially describes real world, focused on describing destinies, circumstances and events close to real ones.
Naturalism is a late stage in the development of realism in the literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Writers strove for the most dispassionate and objective reproduction of reality using literary “protocol” methods, to transform novels into a document about the state of society in a certain place and time. The publication of many works was accompanied by scandals, since naturalists did not hesitate to openly record the life of dirty slums, hot spots and brothels - those places that were not customary to be depicted in earlier literature. Man and his actions were understood as determined by physiological nature, heredity and environment - social conditions, everyday and material environment.
Symbolism is the direction in which the symbol becomes the main element. Symbolism is characterized by an experimental nature, a desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism and a wide range of influences. Symbolists used understatement, hints, mystery, enigma. The main mood captured by the symbolists was pessimism, reaching the point of despair. Everything “natural” appeared only as an “appearance” that had no independent artistic significance.
Avant-garde is a polysemantic term that characterizes a way of expression that is anti-traditional in form.
Modernism is a set of trends in literature of the first half of the 20th century. Associated with concepts such as stream of consciousness, lost generation.
Socialist realism - a direction in literature Soviet Union and the countries of the Social Commonwealth, which was of a propaganda nature and supported by the authorities with the aim of ideologically educating the people and building communism. It ceased to exist after the fall of the Communist regime and the abolition of censorship.
Postmodernism is a direction in literature based on playing with meanings, irony, non-standard construction of texts, mixing genres and styles, and involving the reader in the creative process.

Artistic image

Speaking about the sign process in the composition of human life ( semiotics), experts identify three aspects of sign systems: 1) syntactics(relationship of signs to each other); 2) semantics(the relationship of a sign to what it denotes: the signifier to the signified); 3) pragmatics(the relationship of signs to those who operate with them and perceive them).

Signs are classified in a certain way. They are combined into three large groups:

indexical sign (sign- index) indicates an object, but does not characterize it; it is based on the metonymic principle of contiguity (smoke as evidence of a fire, a skull as a warning of danger to life);
sign- symbol is conditional, here the signifier has neither similarity nor connection with the signified, such as words of natural language (except onomatopoeic ones) or components of mathematical formulas;
Iconic signs reproduce certain qualities of the signified or its holistic appearance and, as a rule, are visual. In the series of iconic signs they differ, firstly, diagrams- schematic recreations of an objectivity that is not entirely specific (graphic designation of industrial development or the evolution of fertility) and, secondly, images that adequately recreate the sensory properties of the designated single object (photographs, reports, as well as capturing the fruits of observation and fiction in works of art).

Thus, the concept of “sign” did not abolish traditional ideas about image and figurativeness, but placed these ideas in a new, very broad semantic context. The concept of a sign, vital in the science of language, is also significant for literary studies: firstly, in the field of studying the verbal fabric of works, and secondly, when referring to the forms of behavior of characters.

Fiction

Fiction in the early stages of the development of art, as a rule, was not realized: the archaic consciousness did not distinguish between historical and artistic truth. But already in folk tales, which never present themselves as a mirror of reality, conscious fiction is quite clearly expressed. We find judgments about artistic fiction in Aristotle’s “Poetics” (chapter 9 - the historian talks about what happened, the poet talks about the possible, about what could happen), as well as in the works of philosophers of the Hellenistic era.

For a number of centuries, fiction has appeared in literary works as a common property, as inherited by writers from their predecessors. Most often, these were traditional characters and plots, which were somehow transformed each time (this was the case, in particular, in the drama of the Renaissance and classicism, which widely used ancient and medieval plots).

Much more than was the case before, fiction manifested itself as the individual property of the author in the era of romanticism, when imagination and fantasy were recognized as the most important facet of human existence.

In the post-romantic era, fiction somewhat narrowed its scope. Flights of imagination writers XIX V. often preferred direct observation of life: characters and plots were close to their prototypes. According to N.S. Leskova, a real writer is a “note-taker,” and not an inventor: “Where a writer ceases to be a note-taker and becomes an inventor, all connection between him and society disappears.” Let us also recall Dostoevsky’s well-known judgment that a close eye is capable of detecting in the most ordinary fact “a depth that is not found in Shakespeare.” Russian classical literature was more a literature of conjecture” than of fiction as such. At the beginning of the 20th century. fiction was sometimes regarded as something outdated, rejected in the name of reconstruction real fact, documented. This extreme has been disputed. The literature of our century - as before - relies widely on both fiction and non-fictional events and persons. At the same time, the rejection of fiction in the name of following the truth of the fact, in some cases justified and fruitful, can hardly become the main line of artistic creativity: without relying on fictional images, art and, in particular, literature are unrepresentable.

Concept fiction clarifies the boundaries (sometimes very vague) between works that claim to be art and documentary information. If documentary texts (verbal and visual) exclude the possibility of fiction from the outset, then works with the intention of perceiving them as fiction readily allow it (even in cases where the authors limit themselves to recreating actual facts, events, and persons). Messages in literary texts are, as it were, on the other side of truth and lies. At the same time, the phenomenon of artistry can also arise when perceiving a text created with a documentary mindset: “... for this it is enough to say that we are not interested in the truth of this story, that we read it “as if it were the fruit<…>writing."

There are two trends artistic imagery, which are denoted by the terms convention(the author’s emphasis on non-identity, or even opposition, between what is depicted and the forms of reality) and lifelikeness(leveling such differences, creating the illusion of the identity of art and life).

Literature as the art of words

Fiction is a multifaceted phenomenon. There are two main sides in its composition. The first is fictitious objectivity, images of “non-verbal” reality, as discussed above. The second is speech constructions themselves, verbal structures. The dual aspect of literary works has given scientists reason to say that literary literature combines two different arts: the art of fiction (manifested mainly in fictional prose, which is relatively easily translated into other languages) and the art of words as such (which determines the appearance of poetry, which is losing its translations are perhaps the most important thing).

The actual verbal aspect of literature, in turn, is two-dimensional. Speech here appears, firstly, as a means of representation (a material carrier of imagery), as a way of evaluative illumination of non-verbal reality; and secondly, as subject of the image- statements belonging to someone and characterizing someone. Literature, in other words, is capable of recreating the speech activity of people, and this particularly sharply distinguishes it from all other types of art. Only in literature, a person appears as a speaker, to which M.M. attached fundamental importance. Bakhtin: “The main feature of literature is that language here is not only a means of communication and expression-image, but also an object of image.” The scientist argued that “literature is not simply the use of language, but its artistic cognition” and that “the main problem of its study” is “the problem of the relationship between depicting and depicted speech.”

Literature and synthetic arts

Fiction belongs to the so-called simple, or one-piece arts based on one a material carrier of imagery (here it is the written word). At the same time, it is closely connected with the arts. synthetic(multi-component), combining several different carriers of imagery (these are architectural ensembles, “absorbing” sculpture and painting; theater and cinema in their leading varieties); vocal music, etc.

Historically, early syntheses were “a combination of rhythmic, orchestic (dance - V.Kh.) movements with song-music and elements of words.” But this was not art itself, but syncretic creativity(syncretism is unity, indivisibility, characterizing the original, undeveloped state of something). Syncretic creativity, on the basis of which, as shown by A.N. Veselovsky, later verbal art (epic, lyric, drama) was formed, had the form of a ritual choir and had a mythological, cult and magical function. In ritual syncretism there was no separation between the actors and the perceivers. Everyone was both co-creators and participants-performers of the action being performed. Round dancing “pre-art” for archaic tribes and early states was ritually obligatory (forced). According to Plato, “everyone must sing and dance, the entire state as a whole, and, moreover, always in a variety of ways, incessantly and enthusiastically.”

As artistic creativity as such became stronger, single-component arts became increasingly important. The undivided dominance of synthetic works did not satisfy humanity, since it did not create the prerequisites for the free and wide manifestation of the artist’s individual creative impulse: each individual type of art within the synthetic works remained constrained in its capabilities. It is not surprising, therefore, that the centuries-old history of culture is associated with a steady differentiation forms artistic activity.

At the same time, in the 19th century. and at the beginning of the 20th century, another, opposite tendency repeatedly made itself felt: the German romantics (Novalis, Wackenroder), and later R. Wagner, Vyach. Ivanov, A.N. Scriabin made attempts to return art to its original syntheses. Thus, Wagner in his book “Opera and Drama” regarded the departure from early historical syntheses as the fall of art and advocated a return to them. He talked about the huge difference between " certain types art,” egoistically disconnected, limited in its appeal only to the imagination, and “true art,” addressed “to the sensory organism in its entirety” and combining various types of art.

But such attempts at a radical restructuring of artistic creativity were not successful: single-component arts remained the undeniable value of artistic culture and its dominant feature. At the beginning of our century, it was said, not without reason, that “synthetic quests<…>take beyond borders not only individual arts, but also art in general."

Literature has two forms of existence: it exists both as a single-component art (in the form of readable works), and as an invaluable component of synthetic arts. This applies to the greatest extent to dramatic works, which are inherently intended for the theater. But other types of literature are also involved in syntheses of the arts: lyrics come into contact with music (song, romance), going beyond the boundaries of book existence. Lyrical works readily interpreted by actors-readers and directors (when creating stage compositions). Narrative prose also finds its way onto stage and screen. And the books themselves often appear as synthetic works of art: the writing of letters (especially in old handwritten texts), ornaments, and illustrations are also significant in their composition. By participating in artistic syntheses, literature provides other types of art (primarily theater and cinema) with rich food , proving to be the most generous of them and acting as a conductor of the arts.

Literature and Mass Communications

IN different eras preference was given various types art. In antiquity, sculpture was most influential; as part of the aesthetics of the Renaissance and the 17th century. the experience of painting dominated, which theorists usually preferred to poetry; in line with this tradition is the treatise of the early French enlightener J.-B. Dubos, who believed that “the power of Painting over people is stronger than the power of Poetry.”

Subsequently (in the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century), literature moved to the forefront of art, and accordingly there was a shift in theory. Lessing in his Laocoon, in contrast to the traditional point of view, emphasized the advantages of poetry over painting and sculpture. According to Kant, “of all the arts, the first place is retained by poetry" With even greater energy, V.G. elevated verbal art above all others. Belinsky, who claims that poetry is the “highest kind of art”, that it “contains all the elements of other arts” and therefore “represents the entire integrity of art.”

In the era of romanticism, music shared the role of leader in the world of art with poetry. Later, the understanding of music as the highest form of artistic activity and culture as such (not without the influence of Beggars) became incredibly widespread, especially in the aesthetics of the Symbolists. It is music, according to A.N. Scriabin and his like-minded people, is called upon to concentrate all other arts around itself, and ultimately to transform the world. The words of A.A. are significant. Blok (1909): “Music is the most perfect of the arts because it most expresses and reflects the Architect’s plan<…>Music creates the world. She is the spiritual body of the world<…>Poetry is exhaustible<…>since its atoms are imperfect - less mobile. Having reached its limit, poetry will probably drown in music.”

The 20th century (especially in its second half) was marked by serious shifts in the relationships between types of art. Arose, strengthened and gained influence art forms, relying on new media of mass communication: they began to successfully compete with the written and printed word oral speech, sounding on the radio and, most importantly, the visual imagery of cinema and television.

In this regard, concepts emerged that, in relation to the first half of the century, can be rightfully called “film-centric”, and in the second half – “telecentric”. Known for his harsh, largely paradoxical judgments, television theorist M. McLuhan (Canada) argued in his books of the 60s that in the 20th century. the second communication revolution occurred (the first was the invention printing press): Thanks to television, which has unprecedented informational power, a “world of universal immediacy” arises, and our planet turns into a kind of huge village. The main thing is that television is gaining unprecedented ideological authority: the television screen powerfully imposes on the masses of viewers this or that view of reality.

In contrast to the extremes of traditional literary centrism and modern telecentrism, it is right to say that literary literature in our time is the first among equal arts.

In its best examples, literary creativity organically combines loyalty to the principles of artistry not only with broad knowledge and deep understanding of life, but also with the direct presence of the author’s generalizations. Thinkers of the 20th century argue that poetry is related to other arts as metaphysics is to science, that it, being the focus of interpersonal understanding, is close to philosophy. At the same time, literature is characterized as “the materialization of self-consciousness” and “the memory of the spirit about itself.” The performance of non-artistic functions by literature turns out to be especially significant in moments and periods when social conditions and political system unfavorable for society. “A people deprived of public freedom,” wrote A.I. Herzen, “literature is the only platform from the height of which he makes the cry of his indignation and his conscience heard.”

Without in any way claiming to stand above other types of art, much less to replace them, fiction thus occupies a special place in the culture of society and humanity as a kind of unity of art itself and intellectual activity, akin to the works of philosophers, scientists, humanists, publicists.

Cognitive perspectives of literature: With the help of words, reality is comprehended not only from the sensory, but also from the mental, thinking side; With the help of words, literature provokes the reader into an independent dialogue, an argument with the author; Fiction is the art of reproducing the human voice to convey an emotionally charged thought.

Robert Rozhdestvensky I will drown in your eyes - Is it possible? After all, drowning in your eyes is happiness! I'll come up and say - Hello! I love you very much - Is it difficult? No, it’s not difficult, but it’s difficult. It is very difficult to love - Do you believe it? I’ll come to a steep cliff, I’ll fall, will you have time to catch it? Well, if I leave, will you write? It’s just hard for me without you! I want to be with you - Do you hear? Not a minute, not a month, but for a long time. A very long time, all my life - Do you understand? So we're always together - Do you want it? I'm afraid of the answer - You know? Answer me, but only with your eyes. Answer me with your eyes - Do you love me? If yes, then I promise you that you will be the happiest. If not, then I beg you, don’t reproach with your gaze, don’t, don’t pull you into the pool, but remember me a little bit, I will love you - Is it possible? Even if you can’t...I will! And I will always come to the rescue, If things get difficult for you!

Literature at the beginning of its history was a performing art, as it existed only in oral form. With the advent of writing, performing forms of literature did not disappear (folklore), but the main lines of its development acquired a non-performing character.

Literature is one of the types of art, the same as sculpture or choreography Word means of expression and the mental form of literature, the iconic basis of its imagery. In the beginning there was a word... This is what the Bible says about the creation of the Universe. The artistic world created by literature arises precisely according to this formula.

Construction material sculpture, painting, film, clay, paint, film, pre-socially processed, “humanized.” The building material of literature is the word. Hegel called the word the most plastic material, directly belonging to the spirit. The word in a literary work is flexible, mobile, changeable and definite in its meaning. It trembles in the poet’s hand like a freshly caught fish. The word is a verbal sign.

And I also asked the money changer, Shyness is hidden deeper in my heart, How can I tell the beautiful Lala, How can I tell her that she is “mine”? And the money changer answered me briefly: They don’t talk about love in words, They sigh about love only furtively, And their eyes, like yachts, burn. A kiss has no name, A kiss is not an inscription on coffins. Kisses glow like a red rose, melting like petals on your lips. No guarantee is required from love; joy and misfortune are known with it. “You are mine” can only be said by the hands that tore off the black veil. I asked the money changer today, What gives a ruble for half a fog, How can I say to the beautiful Lala in Persian a gentle “I love”? Today I asked the money changer, Lighter than the wind, quieter than the streams of Van, What should I call the tender word “kiss” for the beautiful Lala? S. A. Yesenin

Thanks to the flexibility and limitless expressive possibilities of the word, literature is able to absorb elements of the artistic content of any art. Images of other types of art can be translated into the language of literature. Leo Tolstoy in War and Peace, for example, describing the dance of Natasha Rostova, creates an almost visible choreographic image; Hugo in the Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris»reproduces the image of an architectural work; Pushkin in “The Bronze Horseman” sculptural image of Falconet.

In words, in the language of any people, their history, their character, the nature of the Motherland are captured, the wisdom of centuries is concentrated. The living word is rich and generous. It has many shades. It can be menacing and gentle, instill horror and give hope. No wonder the poet Vadim Shefner said this about the word: With a word you can kill, with a word you can save, With a word you can lead regiments. A word can be sold and betrayed and bought, A word can be poured into crushing lead.

Genres of literature: Structural Novel Tale Poem Poem Tragedy Comedy Melodrama Vaudeville Thematic Historical novel Psychological novel Adventure novel Functional Ode Epigram

Since Aristotle's times, the genera and types of literature have been considered the main stylistic factors: Epic Lyrics Drama Essay Genres Epic Dramatic Tragic Lyrical Styles

Essay (from the French essai “attempt, trial, sketch”), literary genre prose work of small volume and free composition. The essay implies freedom of creativity and expresses the author’s individual impressions and thoughts on a specific issue or subject and does not pretend to be an exhaustive or definitive interpretation of the topic. The essay can be historical-biographical, literary-critical, philosophical, popular science, or fictional in nature. The content of the essay evaluates, first of all, the personality of the author - his worldview, thoughts and feelings. In terms of scope and function, the essay borders, on the one hand, with scientific article and a literary essay (with which an essay is often confused), on the other with a philosophical treatise.

Essay forms letter word open letter speech essay Addressees readers audience friend interlocutor person with whom they are arguing

An essay is a way to talk about the world through yourself and about yourself with the help of the world. A. Elyashevich

LOVE Sometimes like a snake, curled up in a ball, it casts a spell right at the heart, sometimes it coos like a dove on a white window all day long, sometimes it flashes in the bright frost, it seems like a left-handed dog in a slumber... But it faithfully and secretly leads from joy and from peace. He knows how to sob so sweetly In the prayer of a yearning violin, And it’s scary to guess it In a still unfamiliar smile. November 24, 1911, Tsarskoe Selo A. Akhmatova

Assignment: Write an essay. Sample topics for a literary and journalistic essay: “They say that love is a gift from God. Is this so? “The one who has never sought either friendship or love is a thousand times poorer than the one who lost them both” (Jean Paul) “Love is the desire to live” (M. Gorky) “To love deeply means to forget about yourself "(J. J. Rousseau) "The greatest happiness in life is the confidence that you are loved" (V. Hugo). “Love gives nobility even to those whom nature has denied it” (W. Shakespeare).

They do not renounce lovingly. After all, life does not end tomorrow. I will stop waiting for you, and you will come quite suddenly. And you will come when it is dark, when a blizzard hits the glass, when you remember how long it has been since we warmed each other. And you want the warmth you once disliked so much that you won’t be able to wait out three people at the machine. And, as luck would have it, the tram, the metro, I don’t know what’s there, will crawl. And the blizzard will cover the paths on the distant approaches to the gate... And in the house there will be sadness and silence, the wheezing of the meter and the rustle of a book, when you knock on the door, running upstairs without a break. I can give everything for this, and I believe in it so much that it’s hard for me not to wait for you, without leaving the door all day Veronika Tushnova

Artistic image in literature

An artistic image is a complex phenomenon that includes the individual and the general, the characteristic and the typical. An artistic image is an image from art that is created by the author of a work of art in order to most fully reveal the described phenomenon of reality. An artistic image is nothing more than a sign, i.e. a means of semantic communication within a given culture or related cultures

« Eternal images» artistic images of works of world literature, in which the writer, based on the vital material of his time, was able to create a lasting generalization applicable in the life of subsequent generations. Thus, Prometheus summarizes the features of a person who is ready to give his life for the good of the people; The image of Don Quixote, created by the famous Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes (XVI-XVII centuries), personifies a noble, but dreaming devoid of vital soil; Hamlet, the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy (XVI-early XVII centuries), a common image of a divided man, torn by contradictions

The main means of artistic expression EPITHETS are colorful, figurative definitions, most often expressed by adjectives. Examples: Stately aspens babble high above you; Long, hanging branches of birch trees barely move, a mighty oak tree stands... (I.S. Turgenev) The air is clean and fresh, like a child’s kiss (M.Yu. Lermontov)

COMPARISON is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another, giving the description a special imagery, clarity, and figurativeness. Eyes, like the sky, blue; The leaves are yellow, like gold... (A. Tvardovsky) There, like a black iron leg, the poker ran and jumped (K. Chukovsky) White drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake (S. Marshak) Basic means of artistic expression

METAPHOR - the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in other words - an unnamed comparison) The similarity can manifest itself: In shape (a ring on the hand - a ring of smoke); By color (golden medallion - golden curls); By impression (black blanket - black thoughts) By the arrangement of objects (an animal's tail - the tail of a comet) By other signs... A fire of red rowan berries is burning in the garden... (S. Yesenin) - the poet compared the fiery color of the bunches with a flame. The comparison in this case would look like this: The rowan bunches turn red like a flame, and autumn tree like a fire.

Brilliant books are inexhaustible; they again and again make people think about the main thing: about themselves, about human destiny and the fate of humanity. They are like a mirror in which everyone new century sees himself

Questions Why is literature called the art of words? Show with examples what the art of words is? What have you learned from literature about love and betrayal, about death and immortality, about nobility and meanness? Is such knowledge important for a person? How has literature helped your own spiritual development? What benefits can reading the literature of the past give a modern person?

Come up with and write down Come up with and write down in your notebooks literary text on the theme “Autumn in the Forest”, using epithets, comparisons and metaphors. Come up with and write down Come up with and write down epithets for the word clouds; comparisons to the word sun; metaphor for the expression the wind blows)

Conclusion: Art – great wizard and a kind of time machine. Any writer, observing, studying life, embodies with the help of words everything that he saw, felt, and understood. Literature has the special power of educating humanity in a person. It enriches us with very special knowledge - knowledge about people, about their inner world. Literature as the art of words has amazing ability influence the minds and hearts of people, helps to reveal the true beauty of the human soul

Creativity It happens like this: some kind of languor; The chime of the clock does not stop in my ears; In the distance, the rumble of fading thunder. I imagine complaints and groans of unrecognized and captive voices, Some secret circle is narrowing, But in this abyss of whispers and ringings One sound rises, conquering all. It’s so irreparably quiet around him, That you can hear the grass growing in the forest, How he’s walking dashingly along the ground with a knapsack... But now words are heard And light rhymes are signaling bells, Then I begin to understand, And simply dictated lines fall into a snow-white notebook. A. Akhmatova Presentation prepared for MHC lesson in 9th grade according to the G.I. program Danilova, art and art teacher Petrova Oksana Viktorovna MBOU Toguchinsky district Gornovskaya secondary school

The study of literature as the art of words. Literature is the art of words. History and role of literature

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