Over the millennia cultural development Humanity has created countless literary works, among which we can distinguish some basic types that are similar in the way and form of reflecting human ideas about the world around us. These are three types (or types) of literature: epic, drama, lyric.

What is different about each type of literature?

Epic as a type of literature

Epic(epos - Greek, narrative, story) is a depiction of events, phenomena, processes external to the author. Epic works reflect the objective course of life, human existence as a whole. Using various artistic media, the authors of epic works express their understanding of historical, socio-political, moral, psychological and many other problems that live with human society in general and each of its representatives in particular. Epic works have significant visual potential, thereby helping the reader to understand the world around us, to comprehend the deep problems of human existence.

Drama as a genre of literature

Drama(drama - Greek, action, performance) is a type of literature, main feature which is the scenic quality of the works. Plays, i.e. dramatic works are created specifically for the theater, for production on stage, which, of course, does not exclude their existence in the form of independent literary texts intended for reading. Like the epic, drama reproduces the relationships between people, their actions, and the conflicts that arise between them. But unlike the epic, which is narrative in nature, drama has a dialogical form.

Related to this features of dramatic works :

2) the text of the play consists of conversations between the characters: their monologues (the speech of one character), dialogues (a conversation between two characters), polylogues (simultaneous exchange of remarks by several participants in the action). That's why speech characteristic turns out to be one of the most important means of creating a memorable character of the hero;

3) the action of the play, as a rule, develops quite dynamically, intensively, as a rule, it is allocated 2-3 hours of stage time.

Lyrics as a type of literature

Lyrics(lyra - Greek, musical instrument, to the accompaniment of which poetic works and songs were performed) is distinguished by a special type of construction artistic image- this is an image-experience in which the individual emotional and spiritual experience of the author is embodied. Lyrics can be called the most mysterious type of literature, because it is addressed to the inner world of a person, his subjective feelings, ideas, and ideas. In other words, a lyrical work serves primarily the individual self-expression of the author. The question arises: why do readers, i.e. other people turn to such works? The whole point is that the lyricist, speaking on his own behalf and about himself, miraculously embodies universal human emotions, ideas, hopes, and the more significant the author’s personality, the more important his individual experience is for the reader.

Each type of literature also has its own system of genres.

Genre(genre - French genus, type) - a historically established type of literary work that has similar typological features. Genre names help the reader navigate the vast sea of ​​literature: some people love detective stories, others prefer fantasy, and still others are a fan of memoirs.

How to determine What genre does a particular work belong to? Most often, the authors themselves help us in this, calling their creation a novel, story, poem, etc. However, some author’s definitions seem unexpected to us: let us remember that A.P. Chekhov emphasized that “The Cherry Orchard” is a comedy, and not a drama at all, but A.I. Solzhenitsyn considered One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich to be a story, not a novella. Some literary scholars call Russian literature a collection of genre paradoxes: the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin”, the poem in prose “ Dead souls", satirical chronicle "The History of a City". There was a lot of controversy regarding “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy. The writer himself said only about what his book is not: “What is War and Peace? This is not a novel, still less a poem, still less a historical chronicle. “War and Peace” is what the author wanted and could express in the form in which it was expressed.” And only in the 20th century did literary scholars agree to call the brilliant creation of L.N. Tolstoy's epic novel.

Each literary genre has a number of stable characteristics, knowledge of which allows us to classify a specific work into one group or another. Genres develop, change, die out and are born, for example, literally before our eyes arose new genre blog (web loq English online journal) - personal online diary.

However, for several centuries there have been stable (also called canonical) genres.

Literature of literary works - see table 1).

Table 1.

Genres of literary works

Epic genres of literature

Epic genres are primarily distinguished by their volume; on this basis they are divided into small ( essay, story, short story, fairy tale, parable ), average ( story ), large ( novel, epic novel ).

Essay- a small sketch from life, the genre is both descriptive and narrative. Many essays are created on a documentary, life basis, often they are combined into cycles: the classic example is “A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy” (1768) by the English writer Laurence Sterne, in Russian literature it is “A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790) A . Radishcheva, “Frigate Pallada” (1858) by I. Goncharov” “Italy” (1922) by B. Zaitsev and others.

Story- a small narrative genre, which usually depicts one episode, incident, human character, or an important incident in the life of the hero that influenced him future fate(“After the Ball” by L. Tolstoy). Stories are created both on a documentary, often autobiographical basis (“Matryonin’s Dvor” by A. Solzhenitsyn) and through pure fiction (“The Gentleman from San Francisco” by I. Bunin).

The intonation and content of stories can be very different - from comic, funny ( early stories A.P. Chekhov") to the deeply tragic ("Kolyma Tales" by V. Shalamov). Stories, like essays, are often combined into cycles (“Notes of a Hunter” by I. Turgenev).

Novella(novella Italian news) is in many ways akin to a short story and is considered its variety, but is distinguished by the special dynamism of the narrative, sharp and often unexpected turns in the development of events. Often the narrative in a short story begins with the ending and is built according to the law of inversion, i.e. reverse order, when the denouement precedes the main events (“Terrible Revenge” by N. Gogol). This feature of the construction of the novella will later be borrowed by the detective genre.

The word “novella” has another meaning that future lawyers need to know. IN Ancient Rome the phrase “novellae leges” (new laws) was used to refer to laws introduced after the official codification of law (after the publication of the Code of Theodosius II in 438). The novellas of Justinian and his successors, published after the second edition of the Justinian Code, later formed part of the code of Roman laws (Corpus iuris civillis). IN modern era a novel is a law submitted to parliament (in other words, a draft law).

Fairy tale- the most ancient of the small epic genres, one of the main ones in oral creativity any people. This is a small work of a magical, adventurous or everyday nature, where fiction is clearly emphasized. Another important feature folk tale- its edifying character: “A fairy tale is a lie, but there is a hint in it, good fellows lesson". Folk tales are usually divided into fairy tales (“The Tale of the Frog Princess”), everyday tales (“Porridge from an Ax”) and tales about animals (“Zayushkina’s Hut”).

With development written literature Literary fairy tales arise in which traditional motifs and symbolic possibilities of folk tales are used. A classic of the genre literary fairy tale Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875) is rightfully considered, his wonderful “The Little Mermaid”, “The Princess and the Pea”, “ Snow Queen", "Persistent tin soldier", "Shadow", "Thumbelina" are loved by many generations of readers, both very young and quite mature. And this is far from accidental, because Andersen’s fairy tales are not only extraordinary and sometimes strange adventures of heroes, they contain a deep philosophical and moral meaning contained in beautiful symbolic images.

Of the European literary fairy tales of the 20th century, “ The Little Prince"(1942) French writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. And the famous “Chronicles of Narnia” (1950 - 1956) by the English writer Cl. Lewis and “The Lord of the Rings” (1954-1955), also by the Englishman J.R. Tolkien, are written in the fantasy genre, which can be called a modern transformation of an ancient folk tale.

In Russian literature, of course, the fairy tales of A.S. remain unsurpassed. Pushkin: “Oh dead princess and seven heroes”, “About the fisherman and the fish”, “About Tsar Saltan...”, “About the golden cockerel”, “About the priest and his worker Balda”. An excellent storyteller was P. Ershov, the author of “The Little Humpbacked Horse.” E. Schwartz in the 20th century creates the form of a fairy tale play, one of them is “The Bear” (another name is “ An ordinary miracle") is well known to many thanks to the wonderful film directed by M. Zakharov.

Parable- also a very ancient folklore genre, but, unlike fairy tales, parables contained written monuments: the Talmud, the Bible, the Koran, the monument of Syrian literature “Teachings of Akahara”. A parable is a work of instructive, symbolic nature, distinguished by sublimity and seriousness of content. Ancient parables, as a rule, are small in volume, they do not contain detailed story about events or psychological characteristics character of the hero.

The purpose of the parable is edification or, as they once said, teaching wisdom. IN European culture The most famous parables from the Gospels are: prodigal son, about the rich man and Lazarus, about the unjust judge, about the crazy rich man and others. Christ often spoke to his disciples allegorically, and if they did not understand the meaning of the parable, he explained it.

Many writers have turned to the parable genre, not always, of course, investing high religious meaning, rather trying to express in an allegorical form some kind of moralistic edification, as, for example, L. Tolstoy in his late creativity. Carry it. V. Rasputin - Farewell to Matera" can also be called an expanded parable, in which the writer speaks with anxiety and sorrow about the destruction of the "ecology of conscience" of man. Many critics also consider the story “The Old Man and the Sea” by E. Hemingway to be part of the tradition of literary parables. The famous contemporary Brazilian writer Paulo Coelho also uses the parable form in his novels and stories (the novel “The Alchemist”).

Tale- a medium literary genre, widely represented in world literature. The story depicts several important episodes from the hero's life, usually one storyline and not large number characters. The stories are characterized by great psychological intensity; the author focuses on the experiences and changes in mood of the characters. Very often main theme The love of the protagonist becomes the story, for example, “White Nights” by F. Dostoevsky, “Asya” by I. Turgenev, “Mitya’s Love” by I. Bunin. Stories can also be combined into cycles, especially those written on autobiographical material: “Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth” by L. Tolstoy, “Childhood”, “In People”, “My Universities” by A. Gorky. The intonations and themes of the stories are extremely diverse: tragic, addressing acute social and moral issues (“Everything Flows” by V. Grossman, “House on the Embankment” by Yu. Trifonov), romantic, heroic (“Taras Bulba” by N. Gogol), philosophical , parables (“The Pit” by A. Platonov), mischievous, comic (“Three in a Boat, Not Counting the Dog” by the English writer Jerome K. Jerome).

Novel(gotap French originally, in the late Middle Ages, any work written in a Romance language, as opposed to those written in Latin) is a major epic work in which the narrative is focused on the fate of an individual. The novel is the most complex epic genre, which is distinguished by an incredible number of themes and plots: love, historical, detective, psychological, fantasy, historical, autobiographical, social, philosophical, satirical, etc. All these forms and types of the novel are united by its central idea - the idea of ​​personality, human individuality.

The novel is called the epic of private life because it depicts the diverse connections between the world and man, society and the individual. The reality surrounding a person is presented in the novel in different contexts: historical, political, social, cultural, national, etc. The author of the novel is interested in how the environment influences a person’s character, how he is formed, how his life develops, whether he managed to find his purpose and realize himself.

Many attribute the origin of the genre to antiquity, such as Long's Daphnis and Chloe, Apuleius's The Golden Ass, and the knightly romance Tristan and Isolde.

In the works of classics of world literature, the novel is represented by numerous masterpieces:

Table 2. Examples of classic novels by foreign and Russian writers (XIX, XX centuries)

Famous Novels Russians writers of the XIX V .:

In the 20th century, Russian writers develop and enhance the traditions of their great predecessors and create no less wonderful novels:

Of course, none of such listings can claim completeness and exhaustive objectivity, especially when it comes to modern prose. IN in this case the most famous works that glorified both the country's literature and the name of the writer are named.

Epic novel. In ancient times there were forms heroic epic: folklore sagas, runes, epics, songs. These are the Indian “Ramayana” and “Mahabharata”, the Anglo-Saxon “Beowulf”, the French “Song of Roland”, the German “Song of the Nibelungs”, etc. In these works, the hero’s exploits were exalted in an idealized, often hyperbolic form. The later epic poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” by Homer, “Shah-name” by Ferdowsi, while retaining the mythological character of the early epic, nevertheless had expressed connection With real story, and the theme of the intertwining of human destiny and the life of the people becomes one of the main ones in them. The experience of the ancients will be in demand in the 19th-20th centuries, when writers try to comprehend the dramatic relationship between the era and individual personality, talk about the tests that morality, and sometimes the human psyche, are subjected to at the time of the greatest historical upheavals. Let us remember the lines of F. Tyutchev: “Blessed is he who visited this world in its fatal moments.” The poet's romantic formula in reality meant the destruction of all familiar forms of life, tragic losses and unfulfilled dreams.

The complex form of the epic novel allows writers to artistically explore these problems in all their completeness and inconsistency.

When we talk about the genre of the epic novel, of course, we immediately remember “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy. Other examples can be mentioned: “ Quiet Don"M. Sholokhov, "Life and Fate" by V. Grossman, "The Forsyte Saga" by the English writer Galsworthy; book by American writer Margaret Mitchell Gone with the Wind"can also with good reason be classified as part of this genre.

The very name of the genre indicates a synthesis, a combination of two main principles in it: novel and epic, i.e. related to the theme of the life of an individual and the theme of the history of the people. In other words, the epic novel tells about the destinies of the heroes (as a rule, the heroes themselves and their destinies are fictitious, invented by the author) against the backdrop of and in close connection with epoch-making historical events. So, in “War and Peace” - these are the fates of individual families (Rostov, Bolkonsky), beloved heroes (Prince Andrei, Pierre Bezukhov, Natasha and Princess Marya) at a turning point for Russia and all of Europe historical period early XIX century, Patriotic War of 1812. In Sholokhov's book, the events of the First World War, two revolutions and a bloody civil war tragically invade the life of the Cossack farm, the Melekhov family, and the fate of the main characters: Grigory, Aksinya, Natalya. V. Grossman talks about the Great Patriotic War and its main event - Battle of Stalingrad, about the tragedy of the Holocaust. “Life and Fate” also intertwines historical and family theme: the author traces the history of the Shaposhnikovs, trying to understand why the destinies of the members of this family turned out so differently. Galsworthy describes the life of the Forsyte family throughout the legendary victorian era in England. Margaret Mitchell - central event in US history, Civil War between North and South, which radically changed the lives of many families and the fate of the most famous heroine American literature- Scarlett O'Hara.

Dramatic genres of literature

Tragedy(tragodia Greek goat song) - dramatic genre, which originated in Ancient Greece. The emergence of ancient theater and tragedy is associated with the worship of the cult of the god of fertility and wine Dionysus. A number of holidays were dedicated to him, during which ritual magical games were played with mummers and satyrs, whom the ancient Greeks imagined as two-legged goat-like creatures. It is assumed that it was precisely this appearance of the satyrs singing hymns to the glory of Dionysus that gave such a strange name in translation to this serious genre. Theatrical performance in Ancient Greece was given magical religious significance, and theaters built in the form of large arenas under open air, have always been located in the very center of cities and were one of the main public places. Spectators sometimes spent the whole day here: eating, drinking, loudly expressing their approval or censure of the spectacle being presented. Heyday ancient Greek tragedy associated with the names of three great tragedians: this is Aeschylus (525-456 BC) - the author of the tragedies “Chained Prometheus”, “Oresteia”, etc.; Sophocles (496-406 BC) - author of “Oedipus the King”, “Antigone”, etc.; and Euripides (480-406 BC) - the creator of “Medea”, “Troyanok”, etc. Their creations will remain examples of the genre for centuries; people will try to imitate them, but they will remain unsurpassed. Some of them (“Antigone”, “Medea”) are still staged today.

What are the main features of the tragedy? The main one is the presence of an insoluble global conflict: in ancient tragedy this is the confrontation between fate, fate, on the one hand, and man, his will, free choice, on the other. In the tragedies of later eras, this conflict acquired a moral and philosophical character, as a confrontation between good and evil, loyalty and betrayal, love and hatred. It has an absolute character; the heroes who embody the opposing forces are not ready for reconciliation or compromise, and therefore the ending of the tragedy often involves a lot of death. This is how the tragedies of the great English playwright William Shakespeare (1564-1616) were constructed; let us remember the most famous of them: “Hamlet”, “Romeo and Juliet”, “Othello”, “King Lear”, “Macbeth”, “Julius Caesar”, etc.

In the tragedies of the 17th century French playwrights Corneille (Horace, Polyeuctus) and Racine (Andromache, Britannicus), this conflict received a different interpretation - as a conflict of duty and feelings, rational and emotional in the souls of the main characters, i.e. . acquired a psychological interpretation.

The most famous in Russian literature is the romantic tragedy “Boris Godunov” by A.S. Pushkin, created on historical material. In one of his best works, the poet acutely raised the problem of the “real trouble” of the Moscow state - a chain reaction of impostures and “terrible atrocities” that people are ready for for the sake of power. Another problem is the attitude of the people to everything that happens in the country. The image of the “silent” people in the finale of “Boris Godunov” is symbolic; discussions continue to this day about what Pushkin wanted to say. Based on the tragedy, the opera of the same name by M. P. Mussorgsky was written, which became a masterpiece of Russian opera classics.

Comedy(Greek komos - cheerful crowd, oda - song) - a genre that originated in Ancient Greece a little later than tragedy (5th century BC). The most famous comedian of that time was Aristophanes (“Clouds”, “Frogs”, etc.).

In comedy with the help of satire and humor, i.e. comic, moral vices are ridiculed: hypocrisy, stupidity, greed, envy, cowardice, complacency. Comedies, as a rule, are topical, i.e. addressed to social issues, exposing the shortcomings of the government. There are sitcoms and character comedies. In the first, a cunning intrigue, a chain of events (Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors) are important; in the second, the characters of the heroes, their absurdity, one-sidedness, as in the comedies “The Minor” by D. Fonvizin, “The Tradesman in the Nobility”, “Tartuffe”, written by the classic genre, the 17th century French comedian Jean Baptiste Moliere. In Russian drama, satirical comedy with its sharp social criticism, such as, for example, “The Inspector General” by N. Gogol, “The Crimson Island” by M. Bulgakov. A. Ostrovsky created many wonderful comedies (“Wolves and Sheep”, “Forest”, “Mad Money”, etc.).

The comedy genre invariably enjoys success with the public, perhaps because it affirms the triumph of justice: in the finale, vice must certainly be punished and virtue must triumph.

Drama- a relatively “young” genre that appeared in Germany in the 18th century as lesedrama (German) - a play for reading. The drama is addressed to everyday life person and society, everyday life, family relationships. I'm interested in drama first and foremost. inner world human, this is the most psychological of all dramatic genres. At the same time, this is also the most literary of stage genres, for example, the plays of A. Chekhov are largely perceived more as texts for reading, rather than as theatrical performances.

Lyrical genres of literature

The division into genres in lyrics is not absolute, because the differences between genres in this case are conditional and not as obvious as in epic and drama. More often we distinguish lyrical works by their thematic features: landscape, love, philosophical, friendly, intimate lyrics, etc. However, we can name some genres that have pronounced individual characteristics: elegy, sonnet, epigram, epistle, epitaph.

Elegy(elegos Greek plaintive song) - a poem of medium length, usually of moral, philosophical, love, confessional content.

The genre arose in antiquity, and its main feature was considered to be the elegiac distich, i.e. dividing a poem into couplets, for example:

The longed-for moment has arrived: my long-term work is over. Why is this incomprehensible sadness secretly disturbing me?

A. Pushkin

In the poetry of the 19th-20th centuries, the division into couplets is no longer such a strict requirement; now the semantic features that are associated with the origin of the genre are more significant. Content-wise, the elegy goes back to the form of the Ancient funeral “laments”, in which, while mourning the deceased, they simultaneously remembered his extraordinary virtues. This origin predetermined the main feature of the elegy - the combination of grief with faith, regret with hope, acceptance of existence through sadness. The lyrical hero of the elegy is aware of the imperfection of the world and people, his own sinfulness and weakness, but does not reject life, but accepts it in all its tragic beauty. A striking example is “Elegy” by A.S. Pushkin:

Crazy years of faded fun

It's hard for me, like a vague hangover.

But like wine - sadness days gone by

In my soul, the older I get, the stronger it is.

My path is sad. Promises me work and grief

The coming troubled sea.

But I don’t want, O friends, to die;

I want to live so that I can think and suffer;

And I know I will have pleasure

Between sorrows, worries and worries:

Sometimes I’ll get drunk again with harmony,

I will shed tears over the fiction,

And maybe - at my sad sunset

Love will flash with a farewell smile.

Sonnet(sonetto Italian song) - the so-called “solid” poetic form, which has strict rules of construction. The sonnet has 14 lines, divided into two quatrains and two tercets. In quatrains only two rhymes are repeated, in terzettos two or three. The methods of rhyming also had their own requirements, which, however, varied.

The birthplace of the sonnet is Italy; this genre is also represented in English and French poetry. The 14th century Italian poet Petrarch is considered the luminary of the genre. He dedicated all his sonnets to his beloved Donna Laura.

In Russian literature, the sonnets of A.S. Pushkin remain unsurpassed; poets of the Silver Age also created beautiful sonnets.

Epigram(epigramma Greek, inscription) - a short mocking poem, usually addressed to a specific person. Many poets write epigrams, sometimes increasing the number of their ill-wishers and even enemies. The epigram on Count Vorontsov turned out to be bad for A.S. Pushkin by the hatred of this nobleman and, ultimately, expulsion from Odessa to Mikhailovskoye:

Popu, my lord, half-merchant,

Half-sage, half-ignorant,

Semi-scoundrel, but there is hope

Which will be complete at last.

Mocking poems can be dedicated not only to a specific person, but also to a general addressee, as, for example, in the epigram of A. Akhmatova:

Could Biche, like Dante, create?

Did Laura go to praise the heat of love?

I taught women to speak...

But, God, how to silence them!

There are even known cases of a kind of duel of epigrams. When the famous Russian lawyer A.F. Kony was appointed to the Senate, his ill-wishers spread an evil epigram about him:

Caligula brought his horse to the Senate,

It stands, dressed in both velvet and gold.

But I will say, we have the same arbitrariness:

I read in the newspapers that Kony is in the Senate.

To which A.F. Kony, who was distinguished by his extraordinary literary talent, replied:

(epitafia Greek, gravestone) - a farewell poem to a deceased person, intended for a gravestone. Initially this word was used in a literal sense, but later it acquired a more figurative meaning. For example, I. Bunin has a lyrical miniature in prose “Epitaph”, dedicated to farewell to the Russian estate that was dear to the writer, but forever a thing of the past. Gradually, the epitaph is transformed into a dedication poem, a farewell poem (“Wreath to the Dead” by A. Akhmatova). Perhaps the most famous poem of this kind in Russian poetry is “The Death of a Poet” by M. Lermontov. Another example is “Epitaph” by M. Lermontov, dedicated to memory Dmitry Venevitinov, poet and philosopher, died at the age of twenty-two.

fr. genre - genus, type) - a historically established, stable variety of a work of art, for example. – in painting – portrait, landscape, still life, etc.; in music – symphony, cantata, song, etc.; in literature - novel, poem, etc. The concept of genre generalizes the features characteristic of a vast group of works of any era, nation or world art in general.

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GENRE

French genre - genus, type), type of work, which has its own characteristic features and divided into subtypes. A literary genre develops historically, summarizing the features that distinguish a group of works in a particular era. A literary genus is formed from the combination of several genres. Genre is divided into types (sometimes these terms are used in the opposite way: type is a larger set, for example, a poem, genre is a specific type, for example, a lyric poem). Overall theory literary families does not exhaust the entire wealth of genres. Other principles for classifying genres can be outlined. The genus unites genres mainly on a formal basis (prose, poetry or the form of presentation of the text for the stage) and on the basis of the most general content of the text (personal feelings and experiences in the lyrics, events in the epic, dramatic plot in drama). Genres can also be divided according to the principle author's attitude to the subject of the image, the general intonation of the work - comic (comedy, comic poem, humorous story), satirical (pamphlet, epigram, feuilleton), tragic, elegiac, etc. Since antiquity, the division of genres into high, medium and low has been known. The high genres include those that tell in a sublime language about the deeds of gods and heroes (tragedy, ode), the low genres are those that ridicule the low actions of people in rude and common language (comedy, satire), the middle genres occupy an intermediate position - they tell about a person’s life without investing in it. neither heroic nor comic content and using the basic fund of words of the language (drama, story). This theory was developed by classicists (M.V. Lomonosov in Russia, who combined the doctrine of genres with the doctrine of three styles - high, medium and low). High genres use words of high and medium style, middle genres use words of medium and low style, and in low genres words of high and low styles are combined, while “high” words are used in a reduced meaning. Sometimes this classification also includes mixed genres - tragicomic and parody works that combine elements of high and low genres.

Genres are distinguished based on a set of characteristics. In addition to the general content and belonging to a specific literary family, the volume of the work, its composition and the richness of ideological content are important. So, for example, a novel and a story differ from each other in volume (the volume of a novel is, as a rule, larger) and the number of problems, themes, and ideas covered (there are more of them in a novel). The same difference exists between a novel and an epic, which is an even larger work designed to convey the life and flavor of an entire era. In some cases, it is difficult to draw a line between genres (for example, many researchers consider the novels of I. S. Turgenev to be stories). It is easier to distinguish genres on a formal basis. Such criteria are common in poetry. For example, a sonnet is distinguished solely on the basis of external features - a poem of 14 lines, consisting of two quatrains and two tercets. The criteria for distinguishing rondo, triolet, ghazal, etc. are also formal. It is difficult to introduce such a criterion in prose, due to its freer nature, and therefore prose genres often differ not in form, but in content. For example, the difference between a short story and a short story is an unexpected ending, which is mandatory for a short story, at least in the modern interpretation of this term.

On the other hand, it is important for the genre ideological content. On this basis inside general genre or type of novel or story, one can distinguish utopian (about non-existent ideal countries and cities, written for didactic purposes), adventure (about the adventures of a hero), detective (about the search for a criminal), psychological (dedicated to revealing the psychology of heroes) and other novels (or corresponding story).

The genre develops and changes historically. IN different eras Various theories arose regarding the criteria for separating one genre from another and the norms for creating text of various genres. The most famous theories belong to the era of antiquity and classicism.

Not only the content of each genre changes, but also the composition of genres as a whole. Thus, the solemn ode, which originated in the poetry of Pindar, went to the periphery of literature for some time, then was revived in the 18th century, during the era of classicism, and after that it gradually faded away. Genres can arise in a certain era, in the work of a certain writer - for example, with the novel “The History of My Disasters” by P. Abelard, the genre of literary confession arose. A one-act drama appeared in the work of playwright M. Maeterlinck. Other genres, such as fable and comedy, which arose in antiquity, continue to exist throughout all periods of literary history, right up to modern times, and are constantly filled with new content.

Different eras in the history of literature differ from each other not only in the composition of genres, but also in their number. For literature of the 20th century. characterized by a large number of genres and their interpenetration. At the intersection of several genres, a new type emerges literary work. In previous periods, literature tended to emphasize several genres (eg, tragedy, ode, epic poem in classicism; lyric poem, ballad, elegy in romanticism). In this regard, in modern literature There were statements about the disappearance of genres - their boundaries expanded to such an extent. Anti-genres appeared - anti-novel, anti-drama.

Genre originality is considered not only in relation to an era or movement in literature, but also in relation to an individual writer. Specific forms always appear in the work of each writer, and their genre affiliation is usually a subject of debate for researchers. Thus, “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky combines the features of a psychological, social, detective and adventure novel.

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"Fantasy" - view fantastic literature, or literature about the extraordinary, based on a plot assumption of an irrational nature. This assumption has no logical motivation in the text, suggesting the existence of facts and phenomena that, unlike science fiction, cannot be rationally explained."

“In the most general case, fantasy is a work where the fantastic element is incompatible with the scientific picture of the world.”

"Fantasy is a description of worlds like ours, worlds with magic working in them, worlds with a clear boundary between Darkness and Light. These worlds can be some kind of variation of the Earth in the distant past, the distant future, an alternative present, as well as parallel worlds existing without connection with the Earth."

A number of researchers are inclined to define fantasy as a type of literary fairy tale. "By external parameters Fantasy is a type of fantastic fairy tale." Writer E. Gevorkyan calls fantasy a "fairy-tale phantasmagoria of imaginary worlds."

“Fairy tale. This genre differs from science fiction in the absence of moral teaching and attempts at messianism. From the traditional fairy tale - in the absence of division into good and bad,” says Nik Perumov’s article.

J.R.R. Tolkien, in his essay “On Fairy Tales,” discusses the role of fantasy in the creation of wonderful secondary worlds. Tolkien extols fantasy, like the romantics of the early 19th century. But, unlike them, the writer considers fantasy not an irrational, but a rational activity. In his opinion, the author of a work of fiction must consciously strive to establish an orientation towards reality. It is necessary to give the fictional internal “logic of the real,” starting with the fact that the author himself must believe in the existence of Fairy (in tune with fantasy), “a secondary world based on the mythological imagination.” Another trend is defining fantasy through myth. This is quite natural, since fantasy literature always has a mythological basis.

“This genre arose on the basis of the authors’ rethinking of the traditional mythological and folklore heritage. And in the best examples of this genre one can find a number of parallels between the author’s fiction and the mythological and ritual ideas that formed its basis.”

“The world of fantasy is ancient myths, legends, tales passed through modern consciousness and revived by the will of the author.” The most clear definition of fantasy is offered by the reference book “Russian Fantasy of the 20th Century in Names and Persons”: “Fantasy is a kind of fusion of fairy tales, science fiction and adventure novels into a single (“parallel”, “secondary”) artistic reality with a tendency to recreate, rethink the mythical archetype and form a new world within its borders.

Fiction presupposes the content of an element of the extraordinary, i.e. a narrative about what does not happen, did not exist and cannot exist. The main meaning of the terms fantasy and fantastic is a special way of displaying reality in forms that are unusual for it. Features of fiction: 1) the premise of the extraordinary, i.e. a plot-shaping assumption about the reality of extraordinary events; 2) motivation for the extraordinary; 3) a form of expression of the extraordinary.

Fantasy is secondary to imagination, it is a product of imagination, it changes the appearance of reality, reflected in consciousness. In this case, we are also talking about a subjective beginning, a kind of substitution. The modern understanding of fantasy is also based on the teachings of K.G. Jung, and then fantasy is the self-image of the unconscious; fantasy is most active when the intensity of the conscious decreases, as a result the barrier of the unconscious is broken.

Fantasy is a concept used to designate a category of works of art that depict phenomena that are distinctly different from the phenomena of reality. The imagery of fantastic literature is characterized by a high degree of convention, which can manifest itself in violation of logic, accepted patterns, natural proportions and forms of what is depicted. The basis of any work of fiction is the opposition “real - fantastic”. The main feature of the poetics of the fantastic is the so-called “doubling” of reality, achieved either through the creation of another reality, completely different from the actual reality, or through the formation of “two worlds”, which consists in the parallel coexistence of the real and unreal worlds. There are such types of fiction as explicit and implicit.

The origins of the fantastic lie in the mythopoetic consciousness of humanity. The era of the heyday of the fantastic is traditionally considered to be romanticism and neo-romanticism. Fantasy gives rise to a special character in works of art that are directly opposed to realism. Fiction does not recreate reality in its laws and foundations, but freely violates them; it forms its unity and integrity not by analogy with how it happens in the real world. By its nature, the pattern of the fantastic world is completely different from the pattern of reality. Science fiction creatively reproduces not reality, but dreams and daydreams in all the uniqueness of their qualities. This is the essential basis of fantasy or its pure form.

There are three types of fantasy works. Works of fantasy of the first type - completely detached from reality - are pure dreams, in which no direct insight into the real reasons or reasons for them is given. Fantastic works of the second type, in which a secret basis is given for everyday phenomena, are dreams when we directly perceive real reasons for wonderful images and events or, in general, their connection with reality, i.e. when in the dream itself we contemplate not only fantastic pictures, but also the real causative agents of them or, in general, elements of the real world directly related to them - and the real turns out to be subordinate to the fantastic. Finally, fantastic works of the third type, in which we directly contemplate not the real causative agents or companions of mysterious phenomena, but precisely their real consequences. These are those sleepy states when, in the first moments of awakening, while still in the power of sleepy visions, we see them introduced one way or another into the real world - descended into waking life. All three types of fiction are equally common in works of art, but they are not equivalent.

The fantasy genre is a type of fantastic literature. In terms of volume of publications and popularity among the average reader, fantasy has left all other areas of science fiction far behind. Among all literary movements It is fantasy that develops most rapidly, exploring new territories and attracting more and more readers.

Fantasy as a technique has been known to art since time immemorial. Actually, to one degree or another it is inherent in any type of art. In literature, it has come a very long way: from primitive myth to fairy tale, from fairy tales and legends - to the literature of the Middle Ages, and then romanticism. Finally, in modern literature the turn of science fiction and fantasy has come. These genres developed in parallel, sometimes touching in some way.

The question of the relationship between science fiction and fantasy has not yet been resolved. On the one hand, both are united in the same concept of “science fiction” and are perceived as its modifications. On the other hand, fantasy is clearly opposed to the literature that is conventionally designated by the term “science fiction.”

Russian literature is enriched by a unique work, known in two versions - “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. “The Lay” (second half of the 12th century) contains the author’s plea, addressed, apparently, to the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich (great-grandson of Vladimir Monomakh) so that the prince would rescue the author from the beggarly state in which he, an educated man, for some reason found himself .

The “Prayer,” compiled on the basis of the “Word” in the second quarter of the 13th century, makes a similar request to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (father of Alexander Nevsky), who reigned in Pereyaslav of Suzdal, and then received “eldership” over the Russian princes from Batu Khan.

With the help of skillfully selected authoritative quotes and aphorisms, both versions of the monument strive to create the ideal image of a prince who would become a reliable protection for his subjects. The prince revives “all people with his mercy,” he is the protector of orphans and widows, he is an energetic master and commander, he is sharply different from his “tivun” assistants, who ruin the people.

The author of “Prayer” condemns the boyars; he agrees to wear “lychnitsy” (bast shoes) in the princely house rather than walk “in a black boot in the boyar’s courtyard.” Here, the image of the prince largely preserves the ideas about the ideal ruler that Vladimir Monomakh created in his “Instruction” to children.

Unlike literary traditions Kievan Rus, where vassal relations were usually considered in the sphere of military activity and were interpreted as a princely-squad quest for “honor and glory,” Daniil Zatochnik did not even hesitate to tell the prince about himself that he was not brave “in the army.” But he was strong in “words” and “strong in thought,” and therefore opened up to him new way princely service.

Skillfully using the sayings of biblical books, “The Physiologist”, “The Tale of Akira the Wise”, “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Izbornik” of Svyatoslav (1076), “Bees” and other monuments, the author proved to the prince his education. His witty speech was sprinkled with sayings (“To whom is Pereslavl, and to me is Goreslavl”; “To whom is Bogolyubovo, and to me is fierce grief”).

Offering himself to the prince as a wise adviser, the humble and poor author laid claim to the high place occupied by the senior squad, like, for example, the boyars - interpreters of the “muddy” dream of Prince Svyatoslav of Kyiv in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Thus, for the first time in Russian literature, the idea of ​​“mind” appears as a decisive sign of personal dignity and professional activity.

The author of the “Prayer” considered himself a “nobleman” (employee at the prince’s “court”), he wanted the prince to protect him from the boyars with the fear of “his thunderstorm.” The sharpener looked at the prince as the main defender of the fatherland and prayed to God to strengthen his strength in order to repel the conquerors, and this revealed the features of the new patriotic concept of North-Eastern Rus'.

The literary genre of prayers spread mainly in those eras of the Developed Middle Ages, when the principles of monarchical statehood, based not on old feudal-tribal traditions, but on the personal service of subjects, began to strengthen in the public consciousness again.

The new position of the writer, a minor vassal, in relation to his first reader - the autocratic overlord - was not to epically glorify his exploits, as happened before, or, on the contrary, to publicly condemn his mistakes from the standpoint of the common good of the Russian land, but in order to contrast the prince with his largest vassals (boyars) and offer him his devoted service, while catering to his political views and personal tastes.

The appearance in ancient Russian literature of the genre of such political words and prayers indicates that it has entered a new period of its development, determined by serious changes in the field of social thought. This genre was well known in the European Middle Ages.

It included a petitionary elegy by the monk Ermold, which he sent from prison to the French prince, the son of King Louis the Pious (IX century), and “Proverbs” (XIII century), the work of a certain Italian “sharpener”. More significant were the Byzantine prayers - literary petitions for pardon and release from prison.

Byzantine poets paid much attention to the ironic depiction of troubles family life and the grumpiness of women. The Russian Sharpener cited the same issue traditional word about "evil wives".

Against the background of such typological correspondences in the genre structure, theme and style of prayers of the Middle Ages, the originality of the ancient Russian writer - the first pamphleteer - clearly stands out.

Daniil Zatochnik was far from historical experience and the education of the Byzantine writers of his time, therefore, unlike them, with the naivety of a neophyte, he was filled with the deepest respect for the authorities of ancient wisdom, admiration for the “mind” in general and for his own in particular.

It seemed to him that, having mastered ancient Christian books, he had already put on “the robe of the wise.” Although he was “poor in clothing, he was abundant in mind.” There were significant shifts in the worldview of the ancient Russian writer.

If in the old literary tradition In Byzantium and Bulgaria, it was only fitting for a true Christian ascetic to “fly the mountain with his mind,” if Metropolitan Nikephoros in his Greek letter to Vladimir Monomakh could say to such a high addressee “your mind flies quickly,” and in “The Tale of Igor’s Host” it was fitting to sing about Boyan the Prophet, “flying with his mind under the clouds,” then Daniil Sharpener, without any hesitation, assigned himself the same exalted characteristics; he himself was already able to “soar with his thoughts” like an eagle through the air. He even rhetorically invited his readers to “blow a trumpet,” like a golden trumpet, “into the mind of your mind.”

This rational self-confidence of the writer, clothed in archaic literary forms, was based on such new features of feudal self-awareness that were associated with the emerging prospects for the political role of the humble “service” person at the historical stage of the reviving ancient Russian statehood. Zatochnik’s “Prayer” was a literary harbinger of the noble journalism of the Moscow state.

History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.

Just like a historian, a writer can recreate the appearance and events of the past, although artistic reproduction of them, of course, differs from scientific reproduction. The author, based on historical data, also includes creative fiction in his works - he depicts what could have been, and not just what actually happened.

The best works representing the historical genre have not only aesthetic value, but also historical and educational value. Fiction can paint a bygone era in its entirety, reveal ideology, social activities, psyche, life in living images. Historical and everyday genres are closely related, since everyday life is part of history. Let us consider the history of the formation of historical genres in literature.

Historical Adventures

Not every work that describes past events seeks to recreate them as they really were. Sometimes this is just material for colorful paintings, a sharp plot, a special flavor - exotic, sublime, etc. This characterizes historical adventures (for example, the works of A. Dumas “Ascanio”, “Erminia”, “Black”, “The Count of Monte Cristo”, “The Corsican Brothers” and others). Their main task is to create an entertaining story.

The emergence of the historical genre

It began to take shape at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. At this time, a historical novel is being created - special genre, which sets itself the goal of directly depicting the life of past eras. It (like the historical drama that appeared later) is fundamentally different from the works dedicated to events previous eras. Fictional historical literature begins to take shape in connection with a significant turning point in historical knowledge, that is, the process of its formation as a science. It is thanks to this that these types of genres appear.

The first authors who worked in new genres

The first writer who began to create works on subjects that interest us is W. Scott. Before this, J. Goethe and F. Schiller, the greats, made their contribution to the development of literature. In the work of the former, historical drama is represented by the works “Egmont” (1788) and “Götz von Berlichingen” (1773). The second created "Wallenstein" (1798-1799), "William Tell" in 1804, and also "Mary Stuart" in 1801. However, the real milestone was the work of Walter Scott, who is considered the founder of the genre historical novel.

He owns a whole series of works depicting the period of the Crusades ("Richard the Lionheart", "Ivanhoe", "Robert, Count of Paris"), as well as the time of the formation of national monarchies in Europe ("Quentin Dorward"), in England ("Woodstock" , “The Puritans”), the collapse of the clan system in Scotland (“Rob Roy”, “Waverley”), etc. For the first time in his works, the reconstruction of the past by the writer’s pen is based on the study of historical sources (while formerly an artist mainly limited to reproducing the general course of events and the most characteristic features of past figures). The work of this writer influenced the further development that the various types genres.

Many classic writers turn to historical themes. These include V. Hugo, who wrote various books. Historical novels created by this author - "Cromwell", "Ninety-third", "Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris" and others.

A. de Vigny (“Saint-Mars”), Manzoni, who created “The Betrothed” in 1827, as well as F. Cooper, M. Zagoskin, I. Lazhechnikov and others were interested in this topic.

Features of works created by romantics

The historical genre, represented by the works of the romantics, does not always have historical value. This is hampered by the subjective interpretation of events and the replacement of actual social conflicts the fight between good and evil. Most often, the main characters of novels are only the embodiment of the writer’s ideal (for example, Esmeralda in Hugo’s work), and not specific historical types. The political beliefs of the creator also play a role. Thus, A. de Vigny, who sympathized with the aristocracy, made the representative of the so-called feudal front the program hero of his work.

Realistic direction

But one should not evaluate the merits of these works by the degree of historical accuracy. For example, Hugo's novels have enormous emotional power. However, an important step in further development in the literature of the 19th century, the historical genre was associated with the victory of realistic principles in it. Realistic works began to depict social characters, the role of the people in the historical process, and insight into the difficult process of struggle between the various forces involved in it. These aesthetic moments were largely prepared by the school of Walter Scott (Mérimée's "Jacquerie", Balzac's "Chouans"). The historical genre in a realistic refraction in Russia won a victory in the work of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin ("The Blackamoor of Peter the Great", "Boris Godunov", "The Captain's Daughter").

Deepening psychological analysis

In the 19th century, in the 30-40s, the deepening of psychological analysis in works became new (for example, the depiction of Waterloo in the work The pinnacle of the historical genre in the 19th century is the epic “War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy. In this work, historicism is manifested in the creation of various historical types, a large-scale awareness of the course of history, as well as the accurate transmission of everyday, social, linguistic, psychological and ideological features of the depicted time.

Historical genre in the mid-19th century

In the middle of the 19th century, after numerous achievements of the realistic school, the most outstanding of which, based on historical material, raised questions about the fate of the nation and folk life, there is a regression in the further development of historical fiction. This is mainly due to the general tendency of bourgeois ideology towards increased reactionism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as an increasingly strong departure from the historicism of social thought. The authors of various historical novels modernize history. For example, A. France, in his work “The Gods Thirst,” written in 1912, dedicated to the period of the French Revolution, conveys the idea that humanity is marking time in its development.

The so-called symbolic literature is becoming widespread, sometimes claiming to have a deep understanding of the historical process, but in fact creating only subjectivist constructions of a mystical nature. The following examples can be given: the work “Beatrice’s Bedspread” created in 1901 by A. Schnitzler; in 1908, Merezhkovsky created “Paul I” and “Alexander I”.

Historical genre in the East

In some countries Eastern Europe On the contrary, at this time the historical genre acquired great social significance and significance. This is due to the fact that during this period the liberation struggle began in these states. Sometimes historical literature takes on a romantic character. For example, in the works of the Polish novelist: “The Flood”, “With Fire and Sword”, “Camo is Coming”, “Pan Volodyevsky”, “The Crusaders”.

In many countries of the East, the national liberation movement was the basis for the formation of the historical novel. In India, for example, its creator is B.C. Chottopadhyay.

Development of the genre after the October Revolution

In after October Revolution a new round of development of the historical realistic novel begins. It allowed Western realists to write a number of works that are outstanding examples of historical fiction. Turning to the past was associated with the need to protect traditions and cultural heritage, with speeches against fascists by humanist writers. For example, this is T. Mann's story "Lotte in Weimar", written in 1939, and numerous novels by Feuchtwanger. These works, distinguished by their democratic, humanistic orientation and closely connected with modernity, are characterized at the same time by the author’s painstaking work on various historical sources. But even in them sometimes there is an imprint of concepts characteristic of historical bourgeois science. For example, Feuchtwanger sometimes has an idea of ​​the progress of history as a struggle between inertia and reason; he also underestimates the role of the people, and sometimes subjectivism appears.

Socialist realism

Socialist realism is associated with a new stage into which the historical genre in literature is entering. His philosophy argued that historical existence is the collective creativity of the people, therefore literature at that time had all the conditions for development, based on the principles of historicism. Along this path, she achieved outstanding results. The most important themes were the depiction of significant, turning-point eras. Characteristic of historical literature of that time was the desire for great generalizations and epicness. As an example, we can cite the novel by A. N. Tolstoy, which depicts the image of this ruler, but at the same time tells about the fate of the people of our country during a critical period of development.

The most important topics Soviet literature was the struggle against the monarchy, the fate of advanced culture in Tsarist Russia, as well as the period of preparation for the revolution and a description of it itself. Historical literature largely includes the work “The Life of Klim Samgin” created by M. Gorky, “Quiet Don” by M. A. Sholokhov, A.N. Tolstoy - “Walking through Torment” and others.

Today, the historical detective story is becoming very popular - a genre represented in the works of Boris Akunin, Umberto Eco, Agatha Christie, Alexander Bushkov and other authors.